tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-71859147029119922612024-03-13T01:32:45.665-04:00Lost African CivilizationsThe tragedy of evolving civilizations destroyed by cruel, selfish, arrogant invaders.Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.comBlogger16125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-91689478754797831182007-06-02T05:47:00.000-04:002007-06-04T16:12:28.602-04:00Ancient African and African Empires Timeline<a href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3812/">http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3812/</a><br />is_200001/<br />ai_n8878495<br />Ancient Africa & African empires timeline<br /><a href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3812">New Crisis, The</a>, <a href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3812/is_200001">Jan/Feb 2000</a> by <a href="http://findarticles.com/p/search?tb=art&qt=%22Agatucci%2C+Cora%22">Agatucci, Cora</a><br /><br />Great ancient African civilizations, in their day, were just as splendid and glorious as any on the face of the earth.<br />5-2.5 million B.C.E.<br />Fossils, rocks, ancient skeletal remains have been uncovered in the Rift Valley and surrounding areas. Evidence points to a common human ancestry originating in Africa from the emergence of a humanlike species in eastern Africa some 5 million years ago. From Hadar, Ethiopia, the 3.18 million year-old remains of "Lucy" were unearthed in 1974.<br /><br />Related Results<br /><a href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1355/is_23_103/ai_102697036" name="&lid=" pos="1">African art treasure returned...</a><br /><a href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1355/is_n18_v85/ai_14895614" name="&lid=" pos="2">U.S. exhibit on ancient North...</a><br /><a href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0STR/is_n5_v104/ai_16564660" name="&lid=" pos="3">Make an African rainstick -...</a><br /><a href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0438/is_2_37/ai_n7580161" name="&lid=" pos="4">The African collection at the...</a><br /><br /><br />600,000 - 200,000<br />Wide spread of species across Asia, Europe, and Africa. Fire use develops. The earliest true human beings in Africa, Homo sapiens, date from more than 200,000 years ago. Hunter-gatherers capable of making crude stone tools, Homo Sapiens banded together with others to form nomadic groups; eventually these nomadic peoples spread throughout the African continent. Discoveries suggest Africa was the primary genecenter for cultivated plants like cotton, sorghum, watermelon, kola-nuts and coffee, and was the first site of the domestication of certain plants for food.<br />25,000-10,000<br />Rock art of North and South Africa<br />6000 - 4000<br />The River People emerge along Nile, Niger, and Congo Rivers (West-Central Africa); the Isonghee of Zaire (Democratic Republic of Congo) introduce the mathematical abacus; and Cyclopian stone tombs built in Central African Republic area. Spread of agriculture south of the Sahara Desert supports a growing population, which mastered animal domestication and agriculture, and forced older nomadic groups (such as the San) into less hospitable areas.<br /><br />ca. 4500<br />Ancient Egyptians begin using burial texts to accompany their dead, first known written documents. Ancient Egyptians, who called their land Kemet[or Kmt] (Land of the Blacks) and Ta-Meri (Beloved Land), were primarily agriculturists who, with the practice of irrigation and animal husbandry, transformed the Nile Valley into a vibrant food-producing economy by 5000 B.C.E. Their settled lifestyle allowed them to develop skills in glass making, pottery, metallurgy, weaving, woodworking, leather work, and masonry. In this latter craft, ancient Egyptian practitioners excelled in architecture, as the pyramids attest.<br />4000 - 1000<br />Ancient African civilizations of the Nile Valley are established and flourish. Ancient Egyptians traced their origins to the Mount Rwenzori range in East Africa known as the "Mountains of the Moon," and in some accounts to "Ethiopia," a term variously designating land south of Egypt (the Upper Nile Valley), or the entire African continent. Thus Nubia, Egypt's southern neighbor with its own civilization, probably preceded Egyptian (Kemet) civilization.<br />By 2500<br />Centers of early civilization flourish in Mesopotamia, Egypt, northeastern India, and northern China.<br />The African-Egyptian Question: Most of us in the West are familiar with ancient Egyptian civilization and its achievements (e.g., the pyramids) as one of the cradles of [Western] civilization. Yet it is important to remember that Egypt is in Africa and that ancient Kemet (as the ancient Egyptians called their kingdom, a term dating from ca. 3100 B.C.E.) is also the cradle of Black African civilization.<br /><br />A subject of <u>heated contemporary debate is the ethnicity and/or color of the ancient Egyptians</u>, and Africanist scholars like Molefi Kete Asante and Abu S. Abarry observe that the more [ancient] Egypt is seen as a society of significance to human civilization, the more its [black African] origins are <u>disputed by some white scholars</u>." They claim that <u>racist sentiments</u> have led "revisionist historians of the fifteenth to the twentieth centuries, the age of the European slave trade [and European colonization of Africa], to discredit Africans, to explain away the African base" of ancient Egypt, "and to accredit all African achievement to the presence of European genes." It is well to note that the ancient Greeks described the way the Egyptians looked to them: "The ancient Greek writers Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and Aristotle <u>all testified that the ancient Egyptians were 'blackskinned </u>(Asante and Abarry 3-4).<br />The African-Egyptian Question II: Asante and Abarry are among Africanist scholars who maintain that African "civilization as expressed from the ancient cultures of the Nile Valley [e.g. Egypt/Kemet, Nubia/Kush), have tied together the diverse peoples of the continent and the Diaspora [*definition below] in ways that distinguish Africans from Europeans or Asians"-although one must be careful <u>not "to assume too much commonality"</u> among African cultures and societies, each <u>"unique, having developed its own orientation</u> to the universe and the physical environment in its concepts of religion, science, art, and politics."<br /><br />Nevertheless, in "the practical experiences of African peoples" across the continent today these scholars trace the continuation of "ancient myths and beliefs in resurrection and life, reincarnation, matrilineality [lineage traced through the "mothers"], burial of the dead, the value of children, the ultimate goodness of the earth" (Asante and Abarry 111 ), as well as reverence for the ancestors believed part of the living human community-a worldview integrating past and future into the present.Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-34625378946429799512007-06-02T02:52:00.000-04:002007-06-04T00:37:31.443-04:00The San - African Bushmen - IIBUSHMEN<br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen</a> <br /><h3 id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</h3><div id="jump-to-nav">Jump to: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#column-one">navigation</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#searchInput">search</a></div><table class="infobox" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0.75em; FONT-SIZE: 95%; BACKGROUND: rgb(255,246,217) 0% 50%; WIDTH: 22em; TEXT-ALIGN: center; moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial" cellpadding="2"><tbody><tr><th style="FONT-SIZE: larger; BACKGROUND: rgb(176,130,97) 0% 50%; COLOR: rgb(254,232,171); TEXT-ALIGN: center; moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial">Bushmen</th></tr><tr><td style="BORDER-RIGHT: medium none; PADDING-RIGHT: 0pt; BORDER-TOP: medium none; PADDING-LEFT: 0pt; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0pt; BORDER-LEFT: medium none; PADDING-TOP: 0.6em; BORDER-BOTTOM: medium none"><div class="floatnone"><span style="font-size:0;"><a class="image" title="San woman from Botswana" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:San_lady_botswana.jpg"><img height="213" alt="San woman from Botswana" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c6/San_lady_botswana.jpg/220px-San_lady_botswana.jpg" width="220" longdesc="/wiki/Image:San_lady_botswana.jpg" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td style="BORDER-RIGHT: medium none; PADDING-RIGHT: 0pt; BORDER-TOP: medium none; PADDING-LEFT: 0pt; FONT-SIZE: 95%; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0.6em; BORDER-LEFT: medium none; LINE-HEIGHT: 11pt; PADDING-TOP: 0.3em; BORDER-BOTTOM: medium none"><br /></td></tr><tr><th style="BACKGROUND: rgb(254,232,171) 0% 50%; moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial">Total population</th></tr><tr><td><p>82,000</p></td></tr><tr><th style="BACKGROUND: rgb(254,232,171) 0% 50%; LINE-HEIGHT: 14pt; moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><td><a title="Botswana" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botswana">Botswana</a> (55,000), <a title="Namibia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibia">Namibia</a> (27,000)</td></tr><tr><th style="BACKGROUND: rgb(254,232,171) 0% 50%; moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial">Languages</th></tr><tr><td>Various <a title="Khoisan languages" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisan_languages">Khoisan languages</a></td></tr><tr><th style="BACKGROUND: rgb(254,232,171) 0% 50%; moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial">Religions</th></tr><tr><td><br /></td></tr><tr><th style="BACKGROUND: rgb(254,232,171) 0% 50%; moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td><a title="Khoikhoi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoikhoi">Khoikhoi</a>, <a title="Xhosa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xhosa">Xhosa</a>, <a title="Zulu" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zulu">Zulu</a>, <a title="Griqua" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griqua">Griqua</a></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p>The <b>Bushmen</b>, <b>San</b>, <b>Basarwa</b> or <b>Khwe</b> are indigenous people of the <a title="Kalahari Desert" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalahari_Desert">Kalahari Desert</a>, which spans areas of <a title="South Africa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa">South Africa</a>, <a title="Botswana" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botswana">Botswana</a>, <a title="Namibia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibia">Namibia</a> and <a title="Angola" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angola">Angola</a>. They were traditionally <a title="Hunter-gatherer" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a>, part of the <a title="Khoisan" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisan">Khoisan</a> group, and are related to the traditionally pastoral <a title="Khoikhoi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoikhoi">Khoikhoi</a>. Starting in the 1950s through the 1990s they switched to farming, with only minor hunting and gathering activities.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-0"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-0">[1]</a></sup> Archaeological evidence suggests that they have lived in southern <a title="Africa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa">Africa</a> (and probably other areas of Africa) for at least 22,000 years but probably much longer. Genetic evidence suggests they are one of the oldest, if not the oldest, peoples in the world — a "<a title="Y-chromosomal Adam" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-chromosomal_Adam">genetic Adam</a>" according to <a title="Spencer Wells" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Wells">Spencer Wells</a>, from which all humans can ultimately trace their genetic heritage.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-1"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-1">[2]</a></sup></p><table class="toc" id="toc" summary="Contents"><tbody><tr><td><div id="toctitle"><h2> </h2></div></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Naming</span></h2><p>The terms San, Khwe, Bushmen, and Basarwa have all been used to refer to hunter-gatherer peoples of southern Africa. Each of these terms has a problematic history, as they have been used by outsiders to refer to them, often with pejorative connotations. The individual groups identify by names such as <a title="Ju/’hoan language" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ju/âhoan_language">Ju/’hoansi</a> and <a title="!Kung people" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/!Kung_people">!Kung</a> (the punctuation characters representing different clicks), and most call themselves "Bushmen" when referring to themselves collectively.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-ThomasNames_0"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-ThomasNames">[3]</a></sup></p><p>The term "San" was historically applied by their ethnic relatives and historic rivals, the <a title="Khoikhoi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoikhoi">Khoikhoi</a>. This term means "outsider" in the <a title="Nama language" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nama_language">Nama language</a> and was derogatory because it distinguished the Bushmen from what the Khoikhoi called themselves, namely the First People.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-ThomasNames_1"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-ThomasNames">[3]</a></sup> Western anthropologists adopted "San" extensively in the 1970s, where it remains preferred in academic circles. The term "Bushmen" is widely used, but opinions vary on whether it is appropriate – given that the term is sometimes viewed as pejorative.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-Name_Game_0"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-Name_Game">[4]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="_ref-2"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-2">[5]</a></sup></p><p>In <a title="South Africa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa">South Africa</a>, the term "San" has become favored in official contexts, being included in the blazon of the new national coat-of-arms. In South Africa "Bushman" is considered derogatory by some groups. <a title="Angola" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angola">Angola</a> does not have an official term for Bushmen, but they are sometimes referred to as Bushmen, <i>Kwankhala</i>, or <i>Bosquímanos</i> (the <a title="Portuguese language" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_language">Portuguese</a> term for Bushmen). Neither <a title="Zambia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambia">Zambia</a> nor <a title="Zimbabwe" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> have official terms, although in the latter case the terms <i>Amasili</i> and <i>Batwa</i> are sometimes used. <sup class="reference" id="_ref-kalaharipeoples_0"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-kalaharipeoples">[6]</a></sup> In <a title="Botswana" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botswana">Botswana</a>, the officially used term is Basarwa<sup class="reference" id="_ref-3"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-3">[7]</a></sup>, where it is partially acceptable to some Bushmen groups, although Basarwa, a <a title="Tswana language" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tswana_language">Tswana language</a> label, also has negative connotations. The term used to be used in the plural, "Masarwa," but this is now almost universally considered offensive.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-kalaharipeoples_1"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-kalaharipeoples">[6]</a></sup></p><p><a id="Relocation_and_government_persecution" name="Relocation_and_government_persecution"></a></p><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Relocation and government persecution</span></h2><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 152px"><a class="internal" title="A San man from Namibia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:San_tribesman.jpg"><img class="thumbimage" height="225" alt="A San man from Namibia" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/32/San_tribesman.jpg/150px-San_tribesman.jpg" width="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:San_tribesman.jpg" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:San_tribesman.jpg"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>A San man from Namibia</div></div></div><p>Since the mid-<a title="1990s" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s">1990s</a> the central government of Botswana has been trying to move Bushmen out of the <a title="Central Kalahari Game Reserve" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Kalahari_Game_Reserve">Central Kalahari Game Reserve</a> even though the national constitution guarantees the Bushmen the right to live there in perpetuity. The Game Reserve was originally created in <a title="1961" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961">1961</a> to protect the 5,000 Bushmen living there who were being persecuted by farmers and cattle-rearing tribes. The government's position is that it is too costly to provide even such basic services as medical care and schooling, despite the reserve's tourism revenues. It has banned hunting with guns in the reserve and has said that the Bushmen threaten the reserves <a title="Ecology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology">ecology</a>. Others, however, claim that the government's intent is to clear the area – an area the size of <a title="Denmark" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark">Denmark</a> – for the lucrative tourist trade and for <a title="Diamond" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond">diamond</a> mining. As of October 2005, the government has resumed its policy of forcing all Bushmen off their lands in the Game Reserve, using armed police and threats of violence or death.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-Daily_Telegraph_0"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-Daily_Telegraph">[8]</a></sup> Many of the involuntarily displaced Bushmen live in squalid resettlement camps and some have resorted to prostitution, while about 250 others remain or have surreptitiously returned to the Kalahari to resume their independent lifestyle.</p><p>The group as a whole has little voice in the national political process and is not one of the tribal groups recognized in the constitution of Botswana. Over the generations, the Bushmen of South Africa have continued to be <a title="Cultural assimilation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_assimilation">absorbed</a> into the African population, particularly the <a title="Griqua" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griqua">Griqua</a> sub-group, which is an <a title="Afrikaans" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a>-speaking people of predominantly <a title="Khoisan" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisan">Khoisan</a> that has certain unique cultural markers that set them apart from the rest of the Africans.</p><p>On December 13, 2006, the Bushmen won an historic ruling in their long-running court case against the government. By a 2-1 majority, the court said the refusal to allow the Basarwa into the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR) without a permit was "unlawful and unconstitutional." It also said the state's refusal to issue special game licenses to allow the Bushmen to hunt was "unlawful" and "unconstitutional" and found that the Bushmen were "forcibly and wrongly deprived of their possessions" by the government. However, the court did not compel the government to provide services such as water to any Bushmen who returned to the reserve. More than one thousand Bushmen intend to return to the Central Kalahari Game Reserve, one of Africa's largest protected nature reserves.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-4"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-4">[9]</a></sup></p><p><a id="Society" name="Society"></a></p><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Society</span></h2><div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 252px"><a class="internal" title="Rock paintings from the Western Cape" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Southafrica468bushman.jpg"><img class="thumbimage" height="165" alt="Rock paintings from the Western Cape" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/43/Southafrica468bushman.jpg/250px-Southafrica468bushman.jpg" width="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Southafrica468bushman.jpg" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Southafrica468bushman.jpg"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Rock paintings from the Western Cape</div></div></div><p>The Bushman kinship system reflects their interdependence as traditionally small, mobile foraging bands. Also, the kinship system is comparable to the Eskimo Kinship system, with the same set of terms as in Western countries, and also employ a name rule and an age rule. The age rule resolves any confusion arising around kinship terms, because the older of two people always decides what to call the younger. According to the name rule, if any two people have the same name, for example an old man and a young man both named /Twi, each family uses the same kin term to refer to them: Young /Twi's mother could call Old /Twi "son", Old /Twi would address young /Twi's sister as his own, Young /Twi would call Old /Twi's wife "wife", and Old /Twi's daughter would be strictly forbidden to Young /Twi as a potential bride. Since relatively few names circulate, and each child is named for a grandparent or other relative, Bushmen are guaranteed an enormous family group with whom they are welcome to travel.</p><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 152px"><a class="internal" title="Preparing poison arrows" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:San_wh03.jpg"><img class="thumbimage" height="217" alt="Preparing poison arrows" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/San_wh03.jpg/150px-San_wh03.jpg" width="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:San_wh03.jpg" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:San_wh03.jpg"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Preparing poison arrows</div></div></div><p>Traditional gathering gear is simple and effective: a hide sling, blanket, and cloak called a kaross to carry foodstuffs, firewood, or young children, smaller bags, a digging stick, and perhaps a smaller version of the kaross to carry a baby. Women and men would gather, and men hunted using poison arrows and spears in laborious days-long excursions.</p><p>Villages ranged in sturdiness from nightly rain shelters in the warm spring, when people moved constantly in search of budding greens, to formalized rings when they congregated in the dry season around the only permanent waterholes. Early spring, a hot dry period following a cool dry winter, was the hardest season, after autumn nuts were exhausted, villages concentrated around waterholes, and most plants were dead or dormant. Meat was most important in the dry months, when wildlife could never range far from receding waters.</p><p>Traditionally the San possessed no status hierarchies<sup class="reference" id="_ref-shostak_0"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-shostak">[10]</a></sup>. They had no "chief" but instead made decisions among themselves, on a consensus basis. Women's status was relatively equal<sup class="reference" id="_ref-5"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-5">[11]</a></sup>. Women did not begin bearing children until about 18 or 19 years of age due to late first menstruation due to the low calorie and low fat diet <sup class="reference" id="_ref-6"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-6">[12]</a></sup> and had them spaced four years apart, due to lack of enough breast milk to feed more than one child at a time <sup class="reference" id="_ref-7"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-7">[13]</a></sup>, and the requirements of mobility leading to the difficulty of carrying more than one child at a time.</p><p>Children were very well behaved and treated kindly by the their parents and group<sup class="reference" id="_ref-8"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-8">[14]</a></sup>. Children spent much of the day playing with each other and are not segregated by sex, neither sex is trained to be submissive or fierce, and neither sex is restrained from expressing the full breadth of emotion that seems inherent in the human spirit" <sup class="reference" id="_ref-9"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-9">[15]</a></sup>.</p><p>The San economy was a <a title="Gift economy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gift_economy">gift economy</a>, based on giving each other gifts on a regular basis rather than on trading or purchasing goods and services <sup class="reference" id="_ref-10"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-10">[16]</a></sup>.</p><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 302px"><a class="internal" title="1000 – 2000 years old San-paintings near Murewa (Zimbabwe)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:San-Paintings_Murewa_ZW.jpg"><img class="thumbimage" height="195" alt="1000 – 2000 years old San-paintings near Murewa (Zimbabwe)" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/San-Paintings_Murewa_ZW.jpg/300px-San-Paintings_Murewa_ZW.jpg" width="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:San-Paintings_Murewa_ZW.jpg" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:San-Paintings_Murewa_ZW.jpg"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>1000 – 2000 years old San-paintings near Murewa (<a title="Zimbabwe" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>)</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 132px"><a class="internal" title="1000 – 2000 years old San-paintings near Murewa (ZW)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:San-Elephant_Murewa_ZW.jpg"><img class="thumbimage" height="201" alt="1000 – 2000 years old San-paintings near Murewa (ZW)" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/San-Elephant_Murewa_ZW.jpg/130px-San-Elephant_Murewa_ZW.jpg" width="130" longdesc="/wiki/Image:San-Elephant_Murewa_ZW.jpg" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:San-Elephant_Murewa_ZW.jpg"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>1000 – 2000 years old San-paintings near Murewa (<a title="Zimbabwe" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe">ZW</a>)</div></div></div><p><a id="Early_history" name="Early_history"></a></p><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early history</span></h2><p>Bushmen had an advanced early culture evidenced by archaeological data. For example, Bushmen from the Botswana region migrated south to the <a title="Waterberg Massif" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterberg_Massif">Waterberg Massif</a> in the era 10,000 to 20,000 years ago. They left rock paintings at the Lapala Wilderness area and <a class="new" title="Goudriver" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goudriver&action=edit">Goudriver</a> recording their life and times, including characterizations of rhinoceros, elephant and a variety of antelope species (resembling impala, kudu and eland, all present day inhabitants).</p><p><a id="In_the_media" name="In_the_media"></a></p><h2> <span class="mw-headline">In the media</span></h2><p>The Bushmen of the <a title="Kalahari" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalahari">Kalahari</a> were first brought to the Western world's attention in the 1950s by South African author <a title="Laurens van der Post" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurens_van_der_Post">Laurens van der Post</a> with the famous book <i>The Lost World of the Kalahari</i>, which was also a BBC TV series.</p><p>The 1980 comedy movie <i><a title="The Gods Must Be Crazy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gods_Must_Be_Crazy">The Gods Must Be Crazy</a></i> portrays a Kalahari Bushman tribe's first encounter with an <a title="Cultural artifact" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_artifact">artifact</a> from the outside world (a <a title="Coca-Cola" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca-Cola">Coke</a> bottle).</p><p><a title="John Marshall (filmmaker)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Marshall_(filmmaker)">John Marshall</a> documented the lives of Bushmen in the Nyae Nyae region of <a title="Namibia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibia">Namibia</a> over more than a 50-year period. His early film <i>The Hunters</i>, released in 1957, shows a giraffe hunt during the 1950s. <i>N!Ai: The Story of a !Kung Woman</i> (1980) is the account of a woman who grew up while the Bushmen were living as autonomous hunter-gatherers and was later forced into a dependent life in the government created community at Tsumkwe. <i>A Kalahari Family</i> (2002) is a five-part, six-hour series documenting 50 years in the lives of the Ju/’hoansi of Southern Africa, from 1951 to 2000. Marshall was a fierce and vocal proponent of the Bushman cause throughout his life, which was, in part, due to strong kinship ties, and had a Bushmen wife in his early 20s.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-11"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_note-11">[17]</a></sup></p><p>In <a title="Wilbur Smith" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilbur_Smith">Wilbur Smith</a>'s <i>The Burning Shore</i>, the San people are portrayed through two major characters, O'wa and H'ani, and the Bushmen's struggles, history and beliefs are touched upon in great detail. <i>The Burning Shore</i> is a volume in the <i>Courtney's of Africa</i> series.</p><p>PBS's series <i>How Art Made the World</i> compares San cave painting 200 years ago to Paleolithic European painting 14,000 years old. Because of their similarities, the San can help us understand the reasons for ancient cave paintings. Lewis Williams believes that their trance states (traveling to the spirit world) are directly related to the reasons people went deep into caves, experienced sensory deprivation, and painted their visions onto the cave walls.</p><p><a title="Spencer Wells" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Wells">Spencer Wells</a>' 2003 book <i><a class="new" title="The Journey of Man" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Journey_of_Man&action=edit">The Journey of Man</a></i>—in connection with <a title="National Geographic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic">National Geographic</a>'s <a title="Genographic Project" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genographic_Project">Genographic Project</a>—discusses a <a title="Genetic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic">genetic</a> analysis of the San and asserts their blood contains the oldest <a title="Genetic markers" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_markers">genetic markers</a> found on earth, making the Bushmen humankind's "genetic Adam". These genetic markers are present on the <a title="Y chromosome" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_chromosome">y chromosome</a> and are therefore passed down through thousands of <a title="Generations" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generations">generations</a> in a relatively pure form. The documentary continues to trace these markers throughout the world, demonstrating that all of <a title="Humankind" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humankind">humankind</a> can be traced back to the <a title="African continent" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_continent">African continent</a> and that the San are the last, most genetically unadulterated, remnant of humankind's ancient <a title="Ancestors" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancestors">ancestors</a>.</p><p><a id="Notables" name="Notables"></a></p><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notables</span></h2><ul><li><a title="Autshumato" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autshumato">Autshumato</a> ("Harry")</li><li><a title="Krotoa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krotoa">Krotoa</a> ("Eva") Pikki pikki what was a famous tribe.</li><li><a title="N!xau" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N!xau">N!xau</a> starred in several films based off and including <i><a title="The Gods Must Be Crazy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gods_Must_Be_Crazy">The Gods Must Be Crazy</a></i>.</li></ul><p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a></p><h2> <span class="mw-headline">See also</span></h2><ul><li><a title="San Religion" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Religion">San Religion</a></li></ul><p><a id="Notes" name="Notes"></a></p><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notes</span></h2><ol class="references"><li id="_note-0"><b><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_ref-0">^</a></b> Elizabeth Marshall Thomas (2006). <i>The Old Way</i>. <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0374225524">ISBN 0374225524</a>. Chapter 20 "The Present".</li><li id="_note-1"><b><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_ref-1">^</a></b> Spencer Wells (2003). <i>The Journey of Man</i>. <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=069111532X">ISBN 069111532X</a>. Pg. 56-58</li><li id="_note-ThomasNames">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_ref-ThomasNames_0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_ref-ThomasNames_1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a title="Elizabeth Marshall Thomas" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Marshall_Thomas">Elizabeth Marshall Thomas</a> (2006). <i>The Old Way</i>. Chapter "About Words and Names". <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0374225524">ISBN 0374225524</a>.</li><li id="_note-Name_Game"><b><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_ref-Name_Game_0">^</a></b> Sailer, S (2002). <a class="external text" title="http://www.isteve.com/2002_Name_Game_Inuit_or_Eskimo.htm" href="http://www.isteve.com/2002_Name_Game_Inuit_or_Eskimo.htm" rel="nofollow">Name Game Inuit or Eskimo</a>. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="November 15" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_15">11-15</a>.</li><li id="_note-2"><b><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_ref-2">^</a></b> <a class="external text" title="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/06/AR2005060601754.html" href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/06/AR2005060601754.html" rel="nofollow">"Wrong Term for the Kalahari's People"</a>, <i><a title="Washington Post" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Post">Washington Post</a></i>, 7 June, 2005</li><li id="_note-kalaharipeoples">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_ref-kalaharipeoples_0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_ref-kalaharipeoples_1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a class="external text" title="http://www.kalaharipeoples.org/documents/San-term.htm" href="http://www.kalaharipeoples.org/documents/San-term.htm" rel="nofollow">Hitchcock, Robert K., and Megan Biesele. "San, Khwe, Basarwa, or Bushmen?: Terminology, Identity, and Empowerment in Southern Africa." Kalahari Peoples Fund. 28 December 2000</a></li><li id="_note-3"><b><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_ref-3">^</a></b> <a class="external text" title="http://www.gov.bw/basarwa/background.html" href="http://www.gov.bw/basarwa/background.html" rel="nofollow">Botswana Gov. - Basarwa Relocation - Intro</a></li><li id="_note-Daily_Telegraph"><b><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_ref-Daily_Telegraph_0">^</a></b> <a class="external text" title="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=" href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/10/29/wbot29.xml&sSheet=/news/2005/10/29/ixworld.html" rel="nofollow" ssheet="/news/2005/10/29/ixworld.html">Bushmen forced out of desert after living off land for thousands of years</a>. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved on <a title="2005" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005">2005</a>-<a title="October 29" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_29">10-29</a>.</li><li id="_note-4"><b><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_ref-4">^</a></b> <a class="external text" title="http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/africa/12/13/bushmen.reut/index.html" href="http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/africa/12/13/bushmen.reut/index.html" rel="nofollow">Botswana's bushmen get Kalahari lands back</a>. CNN. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="December 13" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_13">12-13</a>.</li><li id="_note-shostak"><b><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen#_ref-shostak_0">^</a></b> Marjorie Shostak, 1983, <i>Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman</i>. New York: Vintage Books. Page 10.</li></ol><p><a id="References" name="References"></a></p><h2> <span class="mw-headline">References</span></h2><ul><li><a title="Elizabeth Marshall Thomas" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Marshall_Thomas">Elizabeth Marshall Thomas</a> (2006). <i>The Old Way: A Story of the First People</i>.</li><li><a title="Marjorie Shostak" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marjorie_Shostak">Marjorie Shostak</a> (1983). <i>Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman</i>. New York: Vintage Books.</li><li>Nancy Howell. (1979). <i>Demography of the Dobe !Kung.</i> New York: Academic Press.</li><li>Richard Lee and Irvin DeVore (1999). <i>Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers: Studies of the !Kung San & Their Neighbors</i>. iUniverse.</li><li>Robert J. Gordon (1999). <i>The Bushman Myth: The Making of a Namibian Underclass</i>. <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0813335817">ISBN 0813335817</a>.</li></ul><p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a></p><h2> <span class="mw-headline">External links</span></h2><div class="infobox sisterproject"><div class="floatleft"><span style="font-size:0;"></span> </div><div style="MARGIN-LEFT: 60px"><a title="Wikimedia Commons" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons">Wikimedia Commons</a> has media related to: <div style="MARGIN-LEFT: 10px"><i><b><a class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bushmen" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bushmen">Bushmen</a></b></i></div></div></div><div class="infobox sisterproject"><div class="floatleft"><span style="font-size:0;"></span> </div><div style="MARGIN-LEFT: 60px"><a title="Wikisource" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has an original article from the <a title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopædia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition">1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</a> about: <div style="MARGIN-LEFT: 10px"><i><b><a class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Bushmen" href="http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Bushmen">Bushmen</a></b></i></div></div></div><ul><li><a class="external text" title="http://www.gov.bw/basarwa/index.html" href="http://www.gov.bw/basarwa/index.html" rel="nofollow">Official Botswana Government Website</a></li><li><a class="external text" title="http://survival-international.org/tribes.php?tribe_id=" href="http://survival-international.org/tribes.php?tribe_id=11" rel="nofollow">Survival International</a></li><li><a class="external text" title="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/04/0416_030416_san2.html" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/04/0416_030416_san2.html" rel="nofollow">National Geographic</a></li><li><a class="external text" title="http://www.phototravels.net/namibia/bushmanland-index.html" href="http://www.phototravels.net/namibia/bushmanland-index.html" rel="nofollow">Photo Gallery of Bushmanland, Namibia</a> Over 200 photographs of Ju/'hoansi Bushmen and landscape</li><li><a class="external text" title="http://www.lloydbleekcollection.uct.ac.za" href="http://www.lloydbleekcollection.uct.ac.za/" rel="nofollow">Bleek and Lloyd Archive of xam and !kun texts online</a></li><li><a class="external text" title="http://sacred-texts.com/afr/sbf/index.htm" href="http://sacred-texts.com/afr/sbf/index.htm" rel="nofollow">Specimens of Bushmen folklore</a> - tales collected by Bleek and Lloyd</li><li><a class="external text" title="http://www.wcu.edu/writingcenter/wmgw/examples/Trickster.pdf" href="http://www.wcu.edu/writingcenter/wmgw/examples/Trickster.pdf" rel="nofollow">The San Trickster God meets the Ideology of the West: Exploring the Implications of Interpretation among San and European Relations in Southern Africa</a></li><li><a class="external text" title="http://www.antiquityofman.com/Solomon_myth_ritual.html" href="http://www.antiquityofman.com/Solomon_myth_ritual.html" rel="nofollow">The myth of ritual origins? Ethnography, mythology and interpretation of San rock art</a> by Dr Anne Solomon (South African Archaeological Bulletin, June 1997)</li><li><a class="external text" title="http://kalaharipeoples.org" href="http://kalaharipeoples.org/" rel="nofollow">The Kalahari Peoples Fund</a></li><li><a class="external text" title="http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleid=" href="http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleid=3FE89A86-E7F2-99DF-366D045A5BF3EAB1&chanId=sa027" rel="nofollow" chanid="sa027">Scientific American - Offerings to a Stone Snake Provide the Earliest Evidence of Religion</a> by J. R. Minkel 01/12/06</li></ul><p><br /></p>Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-32157706774520772882007-06-02T02:38:00.000-04:002007-06-02T10:40:41.069-04:00The San - African Bushmen- I<img height="142" alt="The Eland is of great symbolic importance in San rock art" hspace="15" src="http://www.liyatshwa.com/Images/Culture/Rockart1.jpg" width="200" align="left" border="0" /><br /><p style="FONT: 400 13pt/14pt 'Times New Roman'" align="left">One of the greatest cultural experiences in Southern Africa (or the world for that matter) is to gaze upon the tragically beautiful rock art left us by the diminutive and peaceful hunter-gatherers collectively known as the San or 'Bushmen'. The San, who were the sole inhabitants of the region for 118,000 years, have all but ceased to exist as a distinct cultural group, but they live on in their mysterious rock art.</p><br /><img height="138" alt="A shaman or medicine-man" hspace="10" src="http://www.liyatshwa.com/Images/Culture/Rockart2.jpg" width="200" align="right" border="0" /> <p style="FONT: 400 13pt/14pt 'Times New Roman'" align="left">The San used a variety of pigments, minerals, and animal and plant materials to produce the rich colors that characterize their art. The subjects are religious. The art comprises symbols of supernatural potency, metaphors of trance experience, and hallucinations experienced by people in trance. It is not simply a narrative of stone-age life, it is deeply symbolic and mythical, and provides us with wonderful insight into these highly spiritual people.</p>>>>>>>><br />The exquisitely artistry and sensitivity of the San rock art belies the label "inferior" and "savages" applied to these primitive peoples of long ago. Aggrieved Historian<br />>>>>>>><br />http://www.antiquityofman.com/Solomon_myth_ritual.html<br /><table cellspacing="3" width="90%"><tbody><tr><td valign="top" align="left" width="90%"><center><span style="font-family:ARIAL,HELVETICA;font-size:130%;color:#ffcc99;"><b>The Antiquity of Man</b> <!--End title --></span></center><!-- Type in your the introduction of the page --><center><span style="font-size:78%;color:#ffcc99;">Exploring human evolution, gender and social organisation</span></center><!-- End introduction --><br /><div align="center"><h2>The myth of ritual origins? Ethnography, mythology and interpretation of San rock art<br /><span style="font-size:78%;">by Dr Anne Solomon (South African Archaeological Bulletin, June 1997; reproduced with permission)</span></h2></div><div style="TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><p><i><u>ABSTRACT</u>: Mythology has long been discounted as a key to understanding San rock art, even though explanations of paintings by nineteenth century San commentators explicitly linked paintings of therianthropes to the mythological past. An interpretation which reconsiders the importance of San mythology in relation to rock paintings strongly suggests that figures with both animal and human features are not trancers or shamans, as the dominant model suggests. Rather, these and other images are better understood in relation to San myths, and to beliefs about the spirits of the dead. A model which focusses on myth, history and the spatio-temporal schemata of San cosmology and culture is outlined. This model addresses problems of the “ethnographic method”, and of interpretations which assign priority to the role of the shaman in the production of San visual imagery.</i></p><p><u>Introduction</u></p><p>The idea that San rock art is best understood in the context of San religious beliefs and cosmology dates to the nineteenth century. In 1874, it seemed that the affiliation of art and mythology had been clearly demonstrated (Orpen 1874; WHI Bleek in Orpen 1874). However, empiricist studies in the first half of the twentieth century tended to repudiate this claim (cf. Lewis-Williams 1983, 1984a; Lewis-Williams and Loubser 1986; Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1994). Rather, a range of contexts for understanding the art was proposed. Wilman (1968 [1933]:63-4), for example, considered different categories of engraved images as variously “utilitarian” or “Art for Art’s Sake”, while accepting that some probably had religious import. The putative religious context of the art was revived when academic empirical studies (e.g. Maggs 1967; Vinnicombe 1967) directed attention to the apparent symbolic importance of paintings of eland. The religious components of the art were skilfully analysed by Vinnicombe (1972, 1975, 1976), by reference to both mythology and ritual practice. Subsequently, in the works of Lewis-Williams, and later his colleagues, links to ritual gained ascendancy, in a model which increasingly foregrounds the role of the shaman, altered states of consciousness and shamanic experience and visions (e.g. Lewis-Williams 1977, 1980, 1981, 1985, 1987, 1991, 1992, 1995; Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 1989; Lewis-Williams and Loubser 1986). In that model, San mythology appears as an epiphenomenon of trance experience. Although a recursive relationship is acknowledged (Lewis-Williams and Loubser 1986), the subordination of myth has been seen as problematic (Guenther 1994). In this paper, I outline a model which retains several of the important insights afforded by the shamanistic model. It engages with key questions regarding the use of San ethnographies for understanding the rock art, as well as problems of understanding the diversity of San artistic production and belief.</p><p><u>Rock art, mythology and complexes of religious belief</u></p><p>In 1874 JM Orpen published a paper which recounted explanations of Lesotho paintings by a San man named Qing, who had acted as Orpen’s guide on colonial business. Having encountered painted shelters en route, Orpen asked Qing what the paintings of men with rhebok’s heads signified. Qing replied that they were “men who had died and now lived in rivers, and were spoilt at the same time as the elands and by the dances of which you have seen paintings” (Orpen 1874:2; original italics). Orpen enquired further about the spoiling of the eland, and Qing responded by narrating a series of myths and stories, beginning with information on Cagn, the San creator and trickster deity, and concluding with a reference to the “dance of blood” which has been astutely linked by Lewis-Williams (1980) to the trance dance, as anthropologically observed amongst Kalahari San-speaking peoples. Orpen’s copies of the Lesotho paintings were shown to the /Xam man, Dia!kwain (then resident with Wilhelm Bleek and Lucy Lloyd in Cape Town), and his interpretation recorded. On the basis of these commentaries, Bleek declared that “the fact of Bushman paintings, illustrating Bushman mythology has first been demonstrated by this paper of Mr Orpen’s” (WHI Bleek in Orpen 1874:13).</p><p>The same account was used by Lewis-Williams (1980) to establish the primacy of ritual and hallucinatory experience for understanding the art. Lewis-Williams argued that “the connexion between ...religious ideas and the art lay in a San ritual which neither Bleek nor Orpen fully understood” (1980:468) - namely, the trance dance. It was argued that Qing’s comments (cited above) constitute “a threefold metaphorical statement: the therianthropes do not depict mythical, subaquatic people on whom no further information was obtained, but medicine men who have ‘died’ or been ‘spoilt’ in trance, and whose experience is analogous to being under water” (Lewis-Williams 1980:475). On the contrary, I suggest that Qing’s comments are best interpreted not as trance metaphors, but, in the first instance, in relation to San mythology and religious beliefs. </p><p>Taking Qing’s comments in the context of Orpen’s paper it is, first, possible to argue that “spoilt” is not a trance metaphor. Asked about the spoiling of the eland, Qing commenced with some background on Cagn, before recounting his first narrative. This is the myth of the spoiling of the eland (Orpen 1874:2-5). Briefly, the story relates how Cagn’s wife, Coti, gave birth to a baby eland, which Cagn reared in a secluded kloof. But Cagn’s sons unwittingly killed it while out hunting, to Cagn’s anger. Ultimately Cagn instructed his wife to “churn” the eland’s blood together with the fat from its heart, in a pot. The mixture was then “sprinkled” and the drops turned first into eland bulls, then into eland cows: “they churned and produced multitudes of eland and the earth was covered with them” (Orpen 1874:4). The penultimate sentence concludes: “That day game was given to man to eat, and this way they were spoilt and became wild” (Orpen 1874:5).</p><p>Although Lewis-Williams has suggested that Orpen “fabricated the complex and misleading conflation I have tried to unravel”, partly by making Qing’s replies “consecutive” (1980:475), there is a logic in Orpen’s text which suggests otherwise. To understand Qing’s comments on the painted therianthropes, the testimony needs to be seen in the wider context of San mythology. This shows remarkable formal similarities over space and (to a lesser extent) time (Schapera 1965 [1930], Guenther 1989, Schmidt 1991, Barnard 1992) - extending, according to Barnard, “even across the hunter-herder divide” (Barnard 1992:252). Virtually ubiquitous beliefs centre on what Guenther (e.g. 1986, 1989) has called “primal time” - a mythological past, populated by the predecessors of modern San, and by animals who were also human. A second creation event established the current order: animals were separated from humans, becoming merely animals, while the “first people”, “people of the early race” or (the literal /Xam translation) “first-at-sitting people”, became modern San (Bleek and Lloyd 1911; Hewitt 1986:*). In /Xam and other myths, these ancestral people were thought of as ignorant and uncivilised. Ambiguously, they were seen both as powerful (as the creators of various phenomena) and potentially dangerous. After the “second creation”, people acquired manners and customs, but also mortality. The “Origin of Death” narrative (e.g. Bleek and Lloyd 1911:56-65) which explains how people came to “die althogether” or “outright” is also apparently ubiquitous amongst San-speaking peoples (Guenther 1989).</p><p>Qing’s reference to the spoiling of the eland and the narrative summarised above fit unequivocally into this mythological schema: “spoiling” refers here to the separation of humans and animals, and to the San mythological past. The structure of Orpen’s text strongly suggests that this narrative was specifically related in response to Orpen’s request for clarification about the men who were spoilt at the same time as the elands. Independent supporting testimony came from Dia!kwain. Bleek showed him Orpen’s copies of the same paintings on which Qing had commented, before Qing’s comments had been received (Lewis-Williams 1980:469). Dia!kwain too unequivocally linked the painted therianthropes from the sites of Melikane and the Kraai River to the mythological past, stating (in Bleek’s words) that “They [the Melikane therianthropes] are said to belong to the ancient Bushmen, or to the race preceding the present Bushmen, and who it is believed killed people”...[The Kraai River therianthropes] are believed to belong to these same people” (Bleek in Orpen 1874:13). (More recently, !Kung people in Botswana commented to Wilmsen (1986) on copies of Drakensberg paintings; their interpretation of therianthropes also linked them to the time when creation was in progress). The question arises: if the therianthropic figures are indeed mythological beings or ancestral San, how can they also be San shamans in altered states of consciousness? The solution lies in understanding the significance of “death” and “underwater” in San mythology and cosmology - both interpreted by Lewis-Williams as “trance metaphors” (1980).</p><p>Examination of a range of San myths and religious accounts reveals the existence of common and widespread beliefs in dead, mythological, subaquatic or subterranean beings, who may be either malevolent or beneficent. Formal similarities, amongst diverse (Khoi)San peoples, concerning mythical personages, deities and beliefs about death are striking. Generally speaking, two deities are important, although amongst some groups aspects of their identities have become merged, or fused into a single personage (Marshall 1962). Marshall’s account of !Kung religion is described first, because of her awareness of changes through time in the details of belief. </p><p><u>(Khoi)San religious beliefs</u></p><p>The !Kung in the nineteen fifties believed in a supreme creator figure, Gao!na, who lived in the eastern sky (Marshall 1962:223) and (formerly) a death-giver, //Gauwa, associated with the west and the setting sun. Marshall (1962:234) describes how, at the time of her field work, Gao!na had become associated with the power over death, and malevolent powers formerly associated with //gauwa. Also related to //Gauwa are the //gauwasi, or spirits of the dead, who “come to earth and enter into the affairs of men”; Marshall (1962:241) also recounts peoples’ vivid belief in these spirits, and the fear with which they were regarded (see also Barnes n.d.). //Gauwa and the //gauwasi are associated with sickness and death; it is they with whom the curers intercede in the curing ritual and trance. Curers might see //Gauwa at the dance, but Marshall (1962:240-241) was also told that anyone might see him in dreams.</p><p>Silberbauer’s account of G/wi religious beliefs similarly features a supreme creator being, N!adima, and a death-giver, G//amama. The latter is associated with death and illness; and in an account virtually identical to the /Xam, he is believed to cause illness by shooting small arrows into people (especially women) (Silberbauer 1981:54-5; DF Bleek 1935:-6). A more recent account from the Central Kalahari is given by Valiente-Noailles (1993:187-201): he describes a creator being, g//ama, and an evil death-giver named !kaonxa (who sometimes appears also as a less malignant being). In both these ethnographies, the spirits of the dead are described. Silberbauer refers to a subterranean realm, occupied by these spirits (g/amadzi) and “monsters” or “angry things” (//a:xudzi) who surface and “impinge on human lives when angered by the breaking of certain taboos” (Silberbauer 1982:113). Valiente-Noailles (1993:196-99) obtained a detailed account of !kaonxa as the source of evil from a //gana man. !Kaonxa was described as “coming back” from the west; he became a big snake and was said to be still alive (indeed, immune to death). He was said to be living “in places where there is big water. And when a person comes to get water he may just splash him a lot of water and dig him into the water” [i.e. drown him]. He is the “master of all illnesses” and brings violent winds and rainstorms (Valiente-Noailles 1993:196). He is also associated with the //gamahare, or spirits of the dead. Widespread beliefs in a death-giving or evil being are described also by Schapera (1960 [1930]: 160-201) and Barnard (1992:256-60). Amongst the Christianised Nharo, /gauwa is equated with Satan (Guenther 1989). In Angola, the !Xu held similar beliefs about a “god” associated with an underworld: Esterman (1976 [1956] and Viegas Guerreiro (1968) both recorded that the belief “that tilling the soil is regarded as contrary to the world order established by //Gawa” (Barnard 1992:56). This set of beliefs about the creator and the death-giver - which varies somewhat in terms of both form and content amongst southern African Khoisan speakers - provides a way of understanding southern San texts and beliefs about death and underwater.</p><p>Schapera (1965:194), in his review of Khoisan beliefs in deities and supernatural beings, commented on the similarity of the /Xam rain being, !Khwa, to the //gaua (Schapera’s 1965 [1930] orthography) figures of other groups. In /Xam lore, !Khwa is the embodiment of the rain and of the water in the water hole, his home; he is particularly linked to violent and dangerous rain storms. Like the Nharo /gauwa, he is attracted to women (Guenther 1989:117) and is particularly linked to initiation (amongst the /Xam, female initiation). Most of the !Khwa stories pivot on his attraction to female initiates in seclusion. One narrator, Dia!kwain, described drowned female initiates as “the water’s wives” (Bleek and Lloyd 1911:395). !Khwa appears in herbivorous form, including the eland, or, generically as a rain animal or rain bull. (Bleek and Lloyd 1911; DF Bleek 1933a; Hewitt 1986; Solomon 1989, 1992a) </p><p>“The girl’s story; the frog’s story” (Bleek and Lloyd 1911:198-205) exemplifies the tenor of the menarcheal stories. A female initiate, unhappy in menarcheal seclusion and with the associated food rationing and taboos, sneaked off to the waterhole, killed a “water’s child” (described as “like a calf”*) and cooked and ate it while her relatives were out foraging. On her next attempt, an angry !Khwa enveloped her in a whirlwind and deposited her in the waterhole, where she was drowned. Frogs and reflections of stars on the surfaces of the water were said to be disobedient initiates abducted and killed by !Khwa. Her family was likewise afflicted - abducted, drowned and turned into frogs. Their possessions revert to an unworked state: mats and arrows become ?grasses and reeds respectively. In a similar narrative, skin karosses revert to being springbok (L V-20:5612-5617)</p><p>The formal arrangement of /Xam beliefs about deities and death echoes those of the northern San in the Kalahari. In /Xam texts, /Kaggen appears as the primary deity and creator, while !Khwa (cf. /gauwa and !kaonxa) is the death-giver. Both !Khwa and !kaonxa are associated with water, storms and drowning people (Bleek and Lloyd 1911; DF Bleek 1933a; Valiente-Noailles 1993). Although the mythology of the south eastern San is known exclusively from Qing’s regrettably brief account, references to Cagn, primal time and the creation of the eland show that it clearly belongs to the same suite of beliefs. References to death and underwater in the /Xam texts need to be contextualised in relation to this larger corpus of mythology. </p><p>The waterhole in /Xam myths and stories is primarily a place of death and the home of the death-giver, !Khwa (Solomon 1989, 1992a, 1994). It is this symbolism which, I propose, supports Qing’s contention that the painted rhebok-headed figures represented men who had died and now lived in rivers. In terms of /Xam mythology, death and underwater are equivalents. In Lewis-Williams’ argument, “underwater” describes the sensations of trance experience; however, a strong case may be made for the reverse, namely that trancers or curers construe their experience as a journey to the realm of sickness and death, conceptualised as a nether realm accessed through the waterhole, the home of the death-giver, !Khwa. (The curer’s task in the underworld is to wrestle with the spirits who cause illness.) In other words, a trancer experiences and describes what he or she has been socialised to expect, in terms of cosmography and models of mortality and illness; mythology provides the material for understanding the trance experience. Many of the /Xam stories were told to children by their mothers; knowledge and the capacity for imagination of the structure of the universe, the realm of the dead and the origin of illness etc. therefore long precede the experience of trance, which is the domain of adults only. </p><p>Further support for this argument comes from /Xam accounts about death, spirits and mythological beings. The only explicit /Xam account of the afterlife was given by //Kabbo (L II-6:670-671 rev.). He stated that all people (including Boers and Koranna) and dead animals go after death to a great hole in the ground, as big as from the Breakwater in Cape Town to the mountains at Mowbray. “When [?they are] dead and buried in the ground, they walk out along this path; they reach the great hole and they live there and “loep [walk] round” in it” (my parentheses). The path from the grave is described as “a Bushman’s path”, but even more significantly as “the First Bushman’s path” (original underlining) - a point to which I will return. </p><p>/Xam and other texts appear to distinguish two components of a person after death. In the /Xam texts, the heart (soul?) goes to the sky (L V-19:5506 rev, 5512 rev.; DF Bleek 1935:24) to the creator, where it is seen as a star, while the spirit, or ghost, goes to the great hole. Amongst the /Xam and !Kung, falling stars are associated with a person’s death (DF Bleek 1935:24, 29, 32; Marshall 1962:242), and the /Xam also believed certain stars to be “people of the early race” (e.g. L V-21:5660-5668). Evidence for the /Xam belief in an underworld linked to the spirits is contained in an account of a woman who communicates with the spirits of the dead, entreating them to improve her husband’s luck in hunting (DF Bleek 1935: 35-37). She communicates by banging on the ground with a stone. An almost identical account of banging on the ground with a stone is recorded from the nineteenth century !Kung (Bleek and Lloyd 1911:428). </p><p>This complex of beliefs, confused as it may sometimes appear due to temporal, regional and individual variations in belief, suggests that references to death and drowning are not primarily associated with the sensations of trance, but originate in the wider context of mythology and religious beliefs. Lewis-Williams’ (1980) argument that “death” and “underwater” should be interpreted as “trance metaphors” requires further examination in this light.</p><p><u>“Trance metaphors” revisited</u></p><p>That death, underwater and “spoiling” refer to trance was motivated by Lewis-Williams as follows: (1) The !Kung word kxwia means both “spoil” and “enter deep trance” (Biesele pers. comm. to Lewis-Williams 1980); (2) A !Kung curer described his trance experience to Biesele (1975) in terms of being underwater, and learning to cure while underwater; (3) the /Xam used the same metaphor; (4) when Qing referred to the “spoiling” of the eland, “he probably meant that the medicine men in trance exploited the eland’s power as they danced” (1980: 477); and (5) Qing’s reference to people dying from the dance of blood refers to “trance death”, as it still does in the Kalahari. The first four points may be questioned. I argued above that “spoiling” refers directly to Qing’s account of the mythological past and the separation of humans and animals. Two problems may be identified. The use of the same word does not “prove” that we are dealing with a metaphor; a more thorough linguistic analysis is required. More importantly, the fact that the !Kung use “spoil” to mean “trance” is not primarily relevant for understanding Qing’s remarks; the primary context is the Qing/Orpen text, which should take precedence. Instead of Qing’s comments being understood in the context of his wider testimony, they are subordinated to the temporally and spatially distanced Kalahari material. This is a problem within the ethnographic method; whereas Lewis-Williams has clearly demonstrated the utility of Kalahari material for understanding southern San thought and art, this works best at a general level - as I attempt to do in this paper, by invoking well documented, widespread (Khoi)San beliefs. More attention needs to be paid to questions of context, specificity and generalisation when utilising specific ethnographic accounts. </p><p>The privileging of trance experience in understanding references to death and underwater also requires further contextual analysis and consideration in terms of the relationship of myth and ritual. Again, Orpen’s paper as the immediate context of Qing’s comments is subordinated in favour of ethnographic support from twentieth century !Kung. Moreover, the prioritisation of ritual and hence shamanism depends on an a priori argument. Despite both Qing’s and Dia!kwain’s references to the mythological past, Lewis-Williams and proponents of the shamanistic model have taken as their starting point the assumption that ritual is primary. This is a view much discredited in anthropological thought since the heyday of the ritualists (e.g. Frazer, Harrison) in the early 20th century. Rather, the relationship of myth and ritual is not uniform or fixed, and needs to be examined in each instance. The most extensive coverage of the relationship of myth and ritual (and hence the art) was offered by Lewis-Williams and Loubser (1986). However, in that account it was assumed - but not argued - that mythology stands in a secondary relationship to ritual and, by extension, the art. The assumption that ritual is primary is rooted in Lewis-Williams (1980) analysis of Qing’s comments; its persistence underpins the shamanistic model.</p><p>The claim that “dying” and underwater refer to trance centres on Qing’s account of the “dance of blood”. He said “The men with rhebok’s heads, Haqwe’ and Canate’, live mostly under water; they tame elands and snakes...They are people spoilt by the [moqoma] dance, because their noses bleed. Cagn gave us the song of this dance, and told us to dance it and people would die from it, and he would give them charms to raise them again” (Orpen 1874:10). That “dying” here refers to trance “death” is irrefutable, and an insight of immense importance. However, references to death in other contexts cannot be understood as trance metaphors, but rather as references to beliefs about mortality and the afterlife. As suggested above, “underwater” is better understood in relation to the same general complex of beliefs, rather than specific shamanic experiences. As such, there is no reason to question Qing’s statement that the rhebok-headed men live mostly under water; this is entirely consistent with /Xam and San beliefs about !Khwa or //Gauwa, the underworld and the spirits of the dead. </p><p>The third strand of evidence supporting Lewis-Williams’ proposition that death/underwater=trance depends on the claim that the /Xam used the “underwater metaphor” to refer to trance. An account by Dia!kwain, entitled “More about sorcerors” was invoked (L.V. 19:5506-5530; DF Bleek 1935:31-35). It describes how a dead sorceror’s heart falls into “the waterpit which is alive” and sounds like rain: “That is why it sounds like rain, because it enters water which also lives, as does he who is a sorceror” (Bleek 1935:32). The following paragraph then mentions “the water from which sorcerors are wont to fetch water bulls”. This is a reference to the rain-making rituals described by the /Xam, which entailed medicine men of the rain capturing a rain animal by enticing it from its home in the waterhole. It would be slaughtered, and where its blood ran, rain would fall. </p><p>Lewis-Williams makes sense of these extracts by suggesting that the references to dying and underwater therein “mean” trance, and that the rain-making ritual is hallucinatory. He proposed that “both the art and the ethnography, then, confirm the view that the rain-making rituals, described by Qing and Dia!kwain, might, at least on some occasions, have been the hallucinations of trance and not an actual ritual performed with a real animal of whatever species” (Lewis-Williams 1980:473). However, if Dia!kwain’s account is read in the context of mythology and in relation to the remainder of his commentary, another interpretation is more plausible. Such a reading strongly suggests that “death” in this context refers to real death, and not primarily the experience of trance. (There is also some evidence that two Khoisan groups indeed sacrificed real animals in rain-making ceremonies (Hoernle 1922; Estermann 1976).</p><p>Testimony by Dia!kwain, /Hankasso and //Kabbo in the relevant Bleek and Lloyd notebooks, as well as in “More about sorcerors” refer to dead sorcerors, to the death-giver, !Khwa (“the waterpit which is alive”), to falling stars and to the spirits of the dead. This suite of references relates first and foremost to general beliefs about mortality, rather than the specifics of trance. Although the passage does make reference to curers, a close and contextual reading provides further evidence that it is concepts of “real” death which underpin the account interpreted by Lewis-Williams as evidence for the importance of hallucinatory experience. </p><p>The /Xam used the word !gi:xa (sing.) to refer to a “sorceror”. Translation caused difficulties. Lloyd originally translated it as “sorceror”. Dorothea Bleek later used “medicine man”, but after consultation with Maingard reverted to “sorceror” (DF Bleek 1935:1). The root, !gi, merely means “magic” or “magical power” (DF Bleek 1956:382). Analysis of the use of the term reveals a crucial and long standing problem. All references to !gi:xa or !gi:ten (pl.) have been interpreted as references to living /Xam curers or shamans. However it appears that the word applies to two categories (at least) of beings with magical powers (i.e not necessarily curers per se). Apart from the distinction made between rain “sorcerors”, game “sorcerors” and curers (“sorcerors of illness”), a further key separation must be made. While in some contexts, the term certainly applies to living /Xam “sorcerors” of one kind or another, in others it refers to spirits of dead people, who were believed to be the source of illness, although also capable of beneficence. It is not clear whether the spirit of any dead person may act like this, but it is clear that people who had been curers while alive were particularly feared; dead game and rain sorcerors appear to have been considered to be benevolent. The failure to recognise that many of the “sorcerors” referred to are spirits of the dead has many implications for the shamanistic model as it is currently conceptualised. </p><p>The key to this re-reading concerns /Xam and San notions of mortality, time and space. As //Kabbo’s comments (above) illustrate, the spirits of dead people go to live in a special place, the great hole in the ground. In that (locative) sense, people do not “die”, as understood within western temporal and conceptual schemata. On the contrary, like other San groups, the /Xam believed that the spirits of the dead were nevertheless still “present” and influential in the affairs of the living. The /Xam accounts make repeated reference to “sorcerors” as dead (i.e. as spirits, not as trancers). For example, /Hankasso said “I have seen these people, sorcerors who are now dead” (DF Bleek 1935:2). Dia!kwain stated that “When a sorceror dies, his heart comes out in the sky and becomes a star. His heart feels that he is no longer alive; therefore his body there, in which he was alive, becomes a star there, because he feels that he used to be a sorceror. Therefore his magic makes a star, in order to let his body in which he lived walk about” (DF Bleek 1935:24). //Kabbo stated that an earthquake occurs when a sorceror has died: “Then a star shoots (falls), for a sorceror who has gone about among things which are bodies has really died. His sorcery is shooting, because his spirits (?) have got bodies. Therefore they work magic” (DF Bleek 1935:26; original parentheses). </p><p>Dia!kwain, on “Stars and sorcerors”, said that “when a sorceror dies, his heart falls down from the sky, it goes into a waterpit. Our mothers said, when the star is falling approaching the waterpit into which it means to go, he takes the magic power, he shoots it back to the place where people are. For the people are those whom he wants to take away with his sorcery, for he thought of them while he was among men. Our mothers said, a sorceror does this when he dies, he takes away the people whom he has loved when he feels ill and is going to die, these are the people whom he gets, makes them follow him, that they may go with him...For a sorceror is a being who when he dies, wishes to fall heavily, taking his sorcery; for he wishes his work, which he used to do, to leave the earth on which he used to walk about...For when a sorceror dies, his magic power still goes about” (DF Bleek 1935:28-29). Specifically on the topic of the benevolent spirits of the dead, Dia!kwain said “Mother used to tell me that the spirit people were those who had been game sorcerors. When they died, their thoughts, with which they had been sorcerors and worked magic, continued, though they died and we did not see them, still their magic doings went about here. Their magic doings are like a person who always lives, they do not altogether die; thus he still lives in his sorcery” (DF Bleek 1935:35).</p><p>While these accounts affirm the existence of /Xam “shamans” (hereafter “live sorcerors” will be referred to as curers, rainmakers etc. to distinguish them from the spirits of the dead), several issues emerge. Most obviously, accounts of “sorcery” must be understood in relation to the complex of beliefs about illness, mortality and life after death, rather than as in the first instance hallucinatory. As such references to “death” must be contextualised. In some cases (e.g. Qing’s account of the dance) dying may well refer to trance (but not necessarily hallucinatory) experience. In other contexts, curers must be distinguished from spirits of the dead who influence the living. In the shamanistic model, powers and activities which have been attributed to living curers must be understood as the doings of the spirits, rather than as actual events, or as hallucinatory.</p><p>Examination of the Bleek/Lloyd Collection provides strong evidence that many of the descriptions which have been interpreted as shamanic metaphors more plausibly refer to dead people. Such an interpretation permits understanding of statements such as that made by /Hankasso on “What sorcerors eat”: “I have heard people say that some sorcerors eat people...others collect human beings for the others when a man has died. They make them eat the man, of his flesh...A man who dies they make people eat” (DF Bleek 1935:8). Are we to believe that /Xam shamans were cannibalistic? On the contrary, this account is intelligible in relation to beliefs about the spirits of the dead in the underworld. </p><p>It is clear that the rain-maker /kunn, was alive (DF Bleek 1933b:387), but !nuin-kuiten, also a rain medicine man, was dead. Dia!kwain said “My great-grandfather’s name was !nuin-kuiten; father called on him when he wanted rain to fall, although he was no longer with us, my father used to beg him for rain. For father believed that, being a rain medicine man, he would hear father when he called” (Bleek 1933b:382). The same rain-maker, described as someone who “goes by night”, is the subject of an account (DF Bleek 1936:131-134) which has been interpreted by Lewis-Williams (1985:58-9) as evidence for the activities of a live shaman, allegedly going on out-of-body travel and/or hallucinating. The story describes how “when he was on a magical expedition, he saw a Boer’s ox, while he was a lion, he killed the Boer’s ox”. After being shot, he communicated with Dia!kwain’s father: “Father told me that he...had spoken in this manner to father, when he was truly about to die”. The entire account is consistent with beliefs about the magic wrought by spirits when they travel the earth at night in animal form, as well as with the belief that some real lions were in fact spirits. As animals, the spirits are vulnerable to “real” death; hence the emphasis on “truly about to die”. (Cf. Katz’s account (1982:115) of “healers who used to travel at night”, and who were “real lions, different from normal lions, but no less real”).</p><p>Accounts such as this are more plausibly interpreted in terms of beliefs about “real death”, than as trance metaphors. Referring to rain-makers, //Kabbo said that “Dead people who come out of the ground are those of whom my parents used to say that they rode the rain...because they owned it” (DF Bleek 1933a:305). The rain medicine man, /kannu, also seems to have been dead. /Hankasso refers to “the old man, /kannu, and his friends” (DF Bleek 1933b:388-9). The /Xam term employed appears to be a form of the word for “a spirit of the dead” (DF Bleek 1956:350-351). The prefix, /nu, may refer to an elderly person, but its primary meaning relates to death and spirits of the dead; /nu, as an adjective, means “dead” (DF Bleek 1956:709). It is probably significant that the /Xam’s “people of the early race” are referred to by other San-speakers as “stories of the old people” (Biesele 1993:21). The “old woman” (/nu-tara), Tano-!khauken, the springbok sorceress, also seems to be a dead person (DF Bleek 1936:142). Significantly, sorcerors mentioned by name are almost always “old people”, and accounts of the doings of sorcerors are often prefaced by the statement that “Our mothers told us” about them, suggesting that the narrators had not themselves met them during their life times. The specifics of the linguistic evidence are, however, beyond the scope of this paper to address, and require expert attention. </p><p>Dia!kwain addresses the relationship of living and dead sorcerors. After describing the dead sorceror’s heart going into the waterpit, he expands on beliefs about illness and death:</p><table height="70%" width="70%" align="center"><tbody><tr><td><p align="JUSTIFIED">“<i>The [dead] sorceror goes to carry off a person whom he wants from here. It is his magic power which goes to carry off this man from here. We wonder why this person seems about to die: for we are those who do not know, we think thus. One sorceror who knows, understands that it is another sorceror whose charm is trying to carry off the person. He says to us, that we seem to think it is illness of which the person lies dying. But it is enchantment that is killing him. Then we see that the man seems dying, they do not think he will die. Then one sorceror will do this to the other sorceror who has bewitched us, he will snore him out of us. He makes the other go from the place out of which he snores him. He kills the other who has bewitched us. He strikes him dead with a stone; as he strikes him, he says “This man has been going about killing people” [followed by details of the battle]...As he is beating him away he says “may that man go to the spirits [/nu:ke] who are always killing people. He has only wanted to come here, in order to kill and carry off people”... [Then the curer] “made the other sorceror come out of the man</i>” (DF Bleek 1935:32-33; my parentheses). </p></td></tr></tbody></table><p>This and other references (e.g. DF Bleek 1935:20) distinguish between “sorcerors” and “other sorcerors”, illustrating the general nature of the term !gi:xa and its contextual reference to either curers or spirits of the dead who have “possessed” someone and caused illness. The failure of researchers to distinguish between them is a question of temporal conflation; but this same temporal conflation is made by the /Xam. Dead people are not only in the past, but also in the present; “the past” appears to be “locativised” (or spatially conceptualised), as the nether realm of the dead. The temporal scheme is not linear in the western sense of past-present-future. This analysis is crucial for understanding the relevance of mythology, and its bearing on the rock art.</p><p><u>Mythology, religion, rock art and histories</u></p><p>San mythology may be seen not just as a set of religious beliefs, but also as an indigenous history, incorporating culturally specific spatial and temporal schemata (cf. Solomon (1995) on phenomenological approaches to time and rock art, and the linear notions of time and history which permeate archaeological thinking). The San temporal scheme seems to centre on notions of the living and the dead; yet this scheme is also locativised, or conceptualised in spatial terms (underwater and the underworld). Mythology (rather than trance) embodies the spatio-temporal “map”. The theme of reversion in stories featuring !Khwa and a female initiate of the early race illustrates this (drowned peoples’ possessions revert to an unworked state, etc.; see above). Ideas about reversion may be related directly to beliefs about the people of the early race, who were considered “primitive”, uncultured, uncivilised and ignorant. Descent into the water hole is conceptualised both as “death” and as a passage into “the past”, the underworld of the spirits of the dead. Both Qing’s and Dia!kwain’s comments on the Lesotho therianthrope paintings suggest that the “First Bushmen” or people of the early race are also inhabitants of this underworld, or underwater; they are San “ancestors”, who are now dead, and as spirits dwell underground (or underwater), surfacing in various forms in order to enact their magic on the living. A key parallel between the spirits of dead people and the ancestral San is their capacity to be both human and animal; on the basis of Dia!kwain’s comments, the spirits of dead beings with magical powers may well be both (or either) the mythical ancestral San or people (especially curers) who have died but continue to influence the living in the present. </p><p>In terms of such a reading, the explanations of therianthropes given by Qing and Dia!kwain, and their references to the mythology, are easily comprehensible. The therianthropic figures are not necessarily shamans, as has commonly been argued; they may be either the spirits of dead people who were considered powerful while alive, or the spirits of the ancestral San (in ancestral -i.e. therianthropic - form). The references to death, underwater and the spoiling of the eland are all explicable from this perspective: the therianthropes can indeed be men who have died and now live in rivers, and were spoilt at the same time as the eland, rather than products of hallucinatory experience. </p><p>Beliefs about mortality and life after death, and their spatio-temporal forms allow Qing’s comments about the trance dance to be accommodated, in terms of the notion of temporal conflation. Trancers believe they are travelling to the mythological “past” and the realm of the dead; present and past are inseparable. When Qing said that the rhebok-headed men had been “spoilt at the same time as the elands and by the dances...” he may have been referring to the trance-battles waged by curers with the illness-causing spirits (cf. Dia!kwain’s account (above) of the /Xam curer “beating” the “other sorceror”), or to the experience of trance as temporal reversion, and a journey into the past (or both).</p><p>Even Qing’s puzzling identification of the Mangolong [Sehonghong] herbivore-like rain animal as a “snake” can be understood, in relation to these beliefs, resolving what Lewis-Williams (1980:470) considered a “serious disagreement” between the comments of the two nineteenth century San commentators. The death-giver appears in various forms: amongst the /Xam, primarily as a rain animal or eland (e.g. Bleek and Lloyd *); amongst the Kua as a snake living in the water. Either the death-giver may assume various forms, including both rain animals and snakes, or else his primary form differed between the Lesotho San and the /Xam. A third possibility relates to interactions between San and neighbours, as Lewis-Williams (1980:470) suggested. In terms of the arguments put forward by Jolly (1994, 1995, 1996), dominant cultures tend to impose their terminology; given that the Kua account refers to the death-giver with the non-San word “xonjapa” it may be that the herbivorous rain animal was the death-giver’s older form, which mutated into a snake in contact situations (although the /Xam described also snakes and other reptiles as “belonging” to !Khwa (DF Bleek 1933a:303); the association of reptiles (less advanced animals) with the rain seems to relate to the temporal themes which link underwater, reversion and primitivity.</p><p>The interpretation advanced here, which incorporates mythology and historicises and contextualises San testimonies, satisfies the criteria outlined by Lewis-Williams (1983, 1984, 1985:49-50): verifiability, compatibiity with well-established anthropological theory, internal consistency, compatibility with relevant ethnography, diversity of data explained and heuristic potential. The complex of beliefs and the model I have outlined form the basis of a new approach to understanding San art. Such an approach permits incorporation of a far wider range of San beliefs, ranging from the n!ow complex (which links ideas about birth, death, weather, gender, !Khwa, initiation and illness) to beliefs about stars, to notions of space, time and history. </p><p><u>Some iconographical and analytical implications</u></p><p>According to the shamanistic model, the rock art imagery originates in universally experienced hallucinatory forms, seen and then “construed” in culturally specific ways by trancers or shamans (e.g. Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988; Lewis-Williams 1995). In terms of the analysis offered here, where mythology and cosmology are accorded more importance, the “trance metaphors” underpinning the notion that art has a significant hallucinatory component cannot simply be accepted. Therefore, a range of images which have been interpreted as hallucinatory or relating to shamanic experiences may be re-examined.</p><p>In particular, claims that therianthropes represent shamans are problematic. Proponents of the dominant model argue that they represent shamans “fused” in trance experience with animals of potency, or species which they “possess”, or over which they have magical control. However, a stronger case can be made for therianthropes as in the first instance, spirits of the dead (as both Woodhouse (1974) and Pager (1975) proposed long ago) or as mythical ancestors. In most cases, the notion of “possession” does not refer to live shamans’ control over game, but to the model of illness, and the deleterious effect that the spirits may have on the health of the living. This does not mean that shamans or curers were not painted; Lewis-Williams and Dowson’s interpretations of certain figures bleeding from the nose as curers who sniff or “snore” out illness is unquestionably valid. Nevertheless, the notion that the imagery arises in shamanic visions is problematic (see below). </p><p>On the same basis, underwater imagery - including fish, crabs and the like (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1989; Ouzman 1995) - cannot simplistically be interpreted as deriving from hallucinatory experience; rather it is rooted in a fundamental (Khoi)San spatio-temporal frame, and allied forms of beliefs about mortality and life after death. By the same token, images of people and animals who seem to be dead cannot automatically be interpreted as shamans. While the possibility remains that some images depict the shaman’s trance experiences of transformation, in the light of the above analysis, this claim must be argued in each instance; it seems more likely that images of death and dying refer to mortality rather than trance. The figures which have come to be understood as “trance buck” also require re-examination as perhaps relating to the spirits or ancestors.</p><p>Because of frequency of depiction, painted and engraved eland have long received especial attention (e.g. Vinnicombe 1976; Lewis-Williams 1981). Lewis-Williams has argued that “painted eland are symbols of the potency shamans harness to enter trance” (e.g. 1987:171; and cf. 1980,1981). Whereas this may be so in a general or secondary sense, it may equally be argued that it was the eland’s mythological, rather than ritual significance that made it a favoured subject for San artists - as Vinnicombe (1976) suggested. Images of felines also require re-interpretation. Lewis-Williams (1985; 1991) interprets them in trance terms, as living curers going on out-of-body travel or in altered states. Images of lions may well represent dead curers; but again, the key word is “dead” - best understood in a literal rather than metaphoric sense (cf. the account (above) of the “man” in lion’s form who was shot after killing a white farmer’s ox). </p><p>The implications of a model which assigns greater importance to mythology and the San spirits and ancestors are multiple; a detailed analysis, in which this model is applied to a series of painted sites and panels is in preparation but beyond the scope of the present paper, which is concerned first and foremost with the ethnographic basis of San rock art interpretation and the utility of the hallucinatory emphasis in the shamanistic model. </p><p><u>Theoretical and methodological implications</u></p><p>The world-wide impact of structuralism in rock art research since the nineteen sixties has been considerable. This was also true of South African rock art research: two of the classics works on the art (viz. Vinnicombe 1976, Lewis-Williams 1981) drew heavily on structuralist theory and method. Lewis-Williams (1980, 1981) in particular introduced important theoretical innovations, including, inter alia, a shift from linguistic structuralism to semiotic analysis (Lewis-Williams 1981), the introduction of a rudimentary hermeneutic approach (Lewis-Williams 1981), structural-marxist interpretation (Lewis-Williams 1982) and a trenchant and enduring critique of empiricism (Lewis-Williams 1983, 1984). Despite the ongoing theoretical innovations introduced via the shamanistic model, aspects of it are deeply rooted in structuralist notions that are now considered problematic - including issues of historicity and synchronic analysis, and, especially, the notion of universal “deep structures”, or structures of which culture is the surface expression (Levi-Strauss 1963). This notion is variously articulated in the shamanistic model, most obviously in the idea that the production of visual imagery is, at base, a product of neurological structures common to all anatomically modern humans. This echoes Levi-Strauss emphasis on universal categories, while those aspects of the model which emphasise “neuropsychology”, the culturally specific construal of hallucinatory forms and the role of the individual invite comparison with the shift in Levi-Strauss’ later work on myth and symbolism towards examining “the free operation of the mind” (Seymour-Smith:1987:270). </p><p>It seems to me that there is a connection between notions of “deep structure” and various arguments proposed by the shamanists. The notion of universally experienced, hallucinatory “form constants’ and the like are essentially structuralist in affiliation, and have implications for the modes of argumentation employed. The notion of universals permits the generalisation of the analysis of one or a few images or panels to the rock art of southern Africa in general (and indeed the art of other continents). The notion of deep structure also relates to the central role of metaphor, where ethnographic statements (such as Qing’s) are said to represent something else, a “deeper” meaning which must be expertly excavated. I have argued above that both strategies may be questionable. Qing’s alleged “metaphors” are explicable at a “surface level” if the context of analysis is extended to incorporate mythology. And, while the death=trance metaphor seems valid in certain narrow contexts, generalising such interpretations is methodologically problematic. Hence, interpretations of shamans (or dead figures or whatever) must be argued for each case in context, since it cannot be assumed that all therianthropes (or dead figures) are trancers, regardless of their location in specific sites, panels or juxtapositions. </p><p>The art historical notion of site specificity has been invoked by Skotnes (1994) in a somewhat different vein. Skotnes argues that, since the rock face or ground is not neutral (cf. Schapiro 1969, Solomon 1989, Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1990), imagery and compositions need to be considered in relation to the specific site in which they occur. In a related argument, I propose that the iconography of San art requires site specific attention, rather than interpretation by generalisation. This relates to problems with structuralist notions of rule, rather than practice. While it seems clear that aspects of San thought and art are widespread, conventionalised and rule- (or principle-) governed, emphases on general underlying structural principles, and generalised modes of interpretation preclude understanding of diversity in the art, on scales ranging from site to continent. The centrality accorded to trance and shamanic visions tends to impose blanket explanations, and prioritise the role of the shaman-artist. Rather, the contexts of image-making may be disaggregated. If the shaman and his/her visions are not seen as the origin of artistic production, it may be posited that not only shamans painted, and that not all sites are directly related to curing rituals. By scaling down the primacy of the shaman in visualisation and image production, the likelihood of the diversity of the art arising in multiple contexts becomes a topic for investigation. </p><p>In anthropological, archaeological or sociological terms, the notion of site specificity may be used in other ways. For example, on the basis of the view that the shamanistic model subordinates gender, as an identity factor which precedes trance experience, I have considered sites with predominantly female or feminine figures, in relation to the corpus of narratives and lore concerning female initiation (e.g. Solomon 1992b; 1995). Some sites or panels in the south western Cape and elsewhere may be related to female initiation practices (rather than curing rituals). Although such an approach is complicated by the massive difficulties of dating, and of distinguishing painting episodes, I have suggested that considering single sites or panels in relation to the various foci of San thought and social life is preferable to recourse to inflexible, over-arching structuralist generalisations and quasi-universals. As such, considerations of sites as wholes is an improvement on the method of selecting “relevant” imagery from complex and sometimes heavily palimpsested art sites. I have implied above that the ethnographic method has given insufficient consideration to the contexts of oral testimony; the same applies to the images on the rocks. More attention needs to be paid to site particulars and to scales of analysis; this is crucial to understanding the regional, temporal and historical diversity in the art that the shamanistic model cannot properly accommodate. </p><p>Problems of ahistoricity are, of course, not solely determined by synchronic structural analysis, but are also a function of the problems of dating the art. Nevertheless, an approach which prioritises mythology makes some contribution to the issue. Because the shamanistic model takes little account of San mythology and art as indigenous historical and temporal “texts”, differences among northern and southern San beliefs are subordinated in favour of similarities, regardless of scales of analysis. Lewis-Williams and Dowson (1994:207) acknowledge problems with the concept of a “pan-San cosmology”. The problem, however, does not lie in the demonstrable reality of strikingly similar belief sets, but the way in which these are mobilised to understand the art. As I suggested above, it is slippage between the general and the specific that is problematic in the ethnographic method in rock art research, rather than the ethnographic method itself. “Ethnographic methods”, as they have developed since the nineteenth century, are of ongoing value in rock art research. This extends from Stow’s interpretations of the rock art in relation to myth and ritual (e.g. Stow 1905:29, 120-121) to Vinnicombe and Lewis-Williams’ erudite analyses linking Drakensberg and Kalahari materials. Nevertheless, the tendency of ethnography-based methods to homogenise “the San” and to subordinate time, process and historically situated practice requires ongoing evaluation in the light of changing knowledge in rock art research, archaeology and related disciplines. </p><p><u>Conclusions</u></p><p>The model I have outlined both challenges and affirms aspects of the shamanistic model. As such, the extent to which it is seen to have the capacity to affect perceptions of the art is likely to be controversial. A model which proceeds from questions of myth, history and specificity affirms the thesis that the rock art is best viewed in relation to San religious beliefs, with the proviso that this cannot simply be generalised over time and space (nor linked generally to shamans and hallucinatory experience). </p><p>Several of the criticisms I have made are equally applicable to my own previous research, and have arisen in the context of self-critique. For the purposes of the present argument, I have paid insufficient attention to the question of recursiveness, or feedback relations between myth and ritual. Yet, while this reflects the process and context of my own research, it is also based on the proposition that, even if a recursive relationship exists (as it surely does) myth, history and socialisation must ultimately be assigned causal or determining primacy over trance and altered states, rather than vice versa. The main points of departure from the shamanistic model in this analysis concern the supposed centrality of hallucinatory experience in visualisation and the production of rock art, and aspects of method and theory. In this regard it may be profitable to return temporarily to Vinnicombe’s (1976:352) position, where she ultimately declined to generalise the importance of one context of production over another, on the grounds that in San thought all domains are inter-connected. Finally, we may see the art as intrinsically historical; as a varied record of the San perceptions of their own history, whether the subject is mythological, shamanic or depicting contact with colonists and indigenous farmers. </p></div><br /><div></div></td></tr></tbody><div></div><div></div><div></div><div></div><div></div><div></div><div></div><div></div></table>Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-37589817394212071882007-06-01T21:39:00.000-04:002007-06-04T00:46:07.781-04:00African Roots of Humanity and Civilization - Pat VI - Conclusion<p align="center"><strong>CONCLUSION</strong></p><p>There is an African proverb that says "Until the lion has his historian, the hunter will always be a hero." I would contend that not nearly enough energy is expended by us on the history of African people, whether in antiquity or modern times. Not nearly enough. All strong peoples emphasize their history all the time; weak peoples do not. Not only must intellectuals do their work, they must give the information to the masses. I believe that as Africans, if we are to be a strong people again, we must continually clarify who we are and where we are, and constantly emphasize the things that made us great in the past. Some peoples have gone as far as to essentially make their history sacred. No one questions the right of a people to engage in this process. Europeans, Chinese, etc., do it all the time as a matter of course. Even Malcolm X said, "Of all our studies, it is history that is most qualified to reward our research." And this is not just ancient history that Malcolm X was talking about, but history ancient and modern. Our greatest leaders and intellectuals, including David Walker, Martin Robison Delany, Edward Wilmot Blyden, Marcus Garvey, J.A. Rogers, Drusilla Dunjee Houston, Carter G. Woodson, W.E.B. DuBois, Kwame Nkrumah, Kwame Ture, Cheikh Anta Diop, Chancellor Williams, John Henrik Clarke, and many, many more were clear on this. Nkrumah, however, took it a step further and clarified the matter unmistakably when he said that "Thought without practice is empty, and action without thought is blind." I believe that we must use our history, not just for intellectual purposes, but to galvanize our people into action to solve our current problems. In other words, we must use our history as a springboard for struggle. I do not pretend to speak for everyone on this matter, but I do feel quite strongly about it. Nobody in their right mind would argue that we can simply return to the past. But certainly we must look at the past in another light. I say that history is a light that illuminates the past and key that unlocks the door to the future. We need that light and we need that key. Not only must we emphasize our historical greatness as a people, as well as analyze the mistakes that we have made, we must inject it into the minds of the masses of our people and build upon it. This is a fundamental step in our liberation process.</p><p>Africa will never be free until Africans outside of Africa are effectively integrated into the African liberation movement. At the same time, Africans scattered outside of Africa will not be free until Africa itself is free. And by African freedom I am talking about the complete unification of all Africa with her vast mineral resources utilized for and by African people. I believe that we must all, each one of us, see ourselves as endowed with a sacred mission in regards to African liberation. Mine, as a conscious African historian, is to help make Africans proud of themselves, to help change the image of Africa in the world at large, and, through the use of history and culture, clarify our identity as a people, and help reunite a family of people that has been separated far too long. Obviously, our individual missions will vary. But I am clear on mine. I believe that Ancestors have given me a divine task and I do not intend to flunk it. Thank you very much sisters and brothers.</p><p><a href="http://blackherbals.com/african_roots_of_humanity">http://blackherbals.com/african_roots_of_humanity</a></p><p>_and_ci.htm<br /></p><h3 align="center"><img height="10" src="http://blackherbals.com/bd14538_.gif" width="35%" border="0" /><img height="10" src="http://blackherbals.com/bd14538_.gif" width="35%" border="0" /></h3><p align="center"><strong>REFERENCES</strong></p><h3 align="center"><img height="10" src="http://blackherbals.com/bd14538_.gif" width="35%" border="0" /><img height="10" src="http://blackherbals.com/bd14538_.gif" width="35%" border="0" /></h3><p>Ben-Jochannan, Yosef A.A., and John Henrik Clarke. <strong>New Dimensions in African History: The London Lectures of Dr. Yosef ben-Jochannan and Dr. John Henrik Clarke</strong>.<em> </em>Edited with an Introduction by John Henrik Clarke. <em>Trenton: Africa World Press, 1991.</em></p><p>Clarke, John Henrik. <strong>Notes for an African World Revolution: Africans at the Crossroads</strong>.<em> Trenton: Africa World Press, 1991.</em></p><p>Clarke, John Henrik. <strong>African People in World History</strong>. <em>Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1993.</em></p><p>Diop, Cheikh Anta. <strong>The African Origin of Civilization: Myth or Reality</strong>. Translated from the French and edited by Mercer Cook. Translator's Preface by Mercer Cook. <em>Westport: Lawrence Hill, 1974.</em></p><p>Diop, Cheikh Anta. <strong>Black Africa: The Economic and Cultural Basis for a Federated State</strong>.<em> Westport: Lawrence Hill, 1976.</em></p><p>Diop, Cheikh Anta. <strong>The Cultural Unity of Black Africa: The Domains of Patriarchy and of Matriarchy in Classical Antiquity</strong>. Introduction by John Henrik Clarke. Afterword by James G. Spady. <em>Chicago: Third World Press, 1978.</em></p><p>Diop, Cheikh Anta. <strong>Precolonial Black Africa: A Comparative Study of the Political and Social Systems of Europe and Black Africa, from Antiquity to the Formation of Modern States</strong>. Translated from the French by Harold J. Salemson. <em>Westport: Lawrence Hill, 1987.</em></p><p>Diop, Cheikh Anta. <strong>Civilization or Barbarism: An Authentic Anthropology</strong>. Translated from the French by Yaa-Lengi Meema Ngemi. Edited by Harold J. Salemson and Marjolijn de Jager. Foreword by John Henrik Clarke. <em>Westport: Lawrence Hill, 1991.</em></p><p>Finch, Charles S. III. <strong>The African Background to Medical Science: Essays on African History, Science and Civilizations</strong>. Preface by Ivan Van Sertima.<em> London: Karnak House, 1990.</em></p><p>Finch, Charles S. III. <strong>Africa and the Birth of Science and Technology: A Brief Overview</strong>. <em>Decatur: Khenti, 1992.</em></p><p>Hansberry, William Leo. <strong>Pillars in Ethiopian History: The William Leo Hansberry African History Notebook, Vol. 1.</strong> Preface by Joseph E. Harris. Edited by Joseph E. Harris. <em>Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1974.</em></p><p>Hansberry, William Leo. <strong>Africa and Africans as Seen by Classical Writers: The William Leo Hansberry African History Notebook, Vol. 2</strong>. Preface by Joseph E. Harris. Edited by Joseph E. Harris. <em>Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1977.</em></p><p>Hilliard, Asa G. III. <strong>The Maroon Within Us</strong>. <em>Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1994.</em></p><p>Houston, Drusilla Dunjee. <strong>The Wonderful Ethiopians of the Ancient Cushite Empire. Book 1, Nations of the Cushite Empire. Marvelous Facts from Authentic Records</strong>. Oklahoma City: Universal Publishing, 1926; rpt. Introduction by W. Paul Coates. Afterword by Asa G. Hilliard III. Commentary by James G. Spady. <em>Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1985.</em></p><p>Jackson, John G. <strong>Introduction to African Civilizations</strong>. Introduction and Additional Bibliographical Notes by John Henrik Clarke. Secaucus: <em>Citadel, 1970.</em></p><p>Jackson, John G. <strong>Ages of Gold and Silver and Other Short Sketches of Human History</strong>. Foreword by Madalyn O'Hair. <em>Austin: American Atheist Press, 1990.</em></p><p>James, George G.M. <strong>Stolen Legacy: The Greeks Were Not the Authors of Greek Philosophy, But the People of North Africa, Commonly Called the Egyptians</strong>. <em>1954; rpt. San Francisco: Julian Richardson Associates, 1985.</em></p><p>Parker, George Wells. <strong>The Children of the Sun. Omaha: The Hamitic League of the World</strong>, <em>1918; rpt. Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1978.</em></p><p>Rashidi, Runoko, and Ivan Van Sertima, eds. <strong>African Presence in Early Asia</strong>. <em>Tenth Anniversary Edition. New Brunswick: Journal of African Civilizations, 1996.</em></p><p>Rogers, Joel Augustus. <strong>World's Great Men of Color, 2 Vols.</strong> Edited with an Introduction, Commentary, and New Bibliographical Notes by John Henrik Clarke. <em>New York: Collier, 1972.</em></p><p>Van Sertima, Ivan. <strong>They Came Before Columbus: The African Presence in Ancient America</strong>. <em>New York: Random House, 1977.</em></p><p>Van Sertima, Ivan, ed. <strong>Blacks in Science: Ancient and Modern</strong>. <em>New Brunswick: Journal of African Civilizations, 1983.</em></p><p>Van Sertima, Ivan, ed. <strong>African Presence in Early Europe.</strong> <em>New Brunswick: Journal of African Civilizations, 1985.</em></p><p>Van Sertima, Ivan, ed. <strong>Black Women in Antiquity</strong>. <em>New Brunswick: Journal of African Civilizations, 1987.</em></p><p>Van Sertima, Ivan, ed. <strong>Great Black Leaders: Ancient and Modern.</strong> <em>New Brunswick: Journal of Civilizations, 1988.</em></p><p>Van Sertima, Ivan, ed. <strong>Egypt Revisited</strong>. <em>Rev. ed. New Brunswick: Journal of African Civilizations, 1989.</em></p><p>Van Sertima, Ivan, ed. <strong>African Presence in Early America</strong>. <em>Rev. ed. New Brunswick: Journal of African Civilizations, 1992.</em></p><p>Van Sertima, Ivan, ed. <strong>Golden Age of the Moor</strong>. <em>New Brunswick: Journal of African Civilizations, 1992.</em></p><p>Van Sertima, Ivan, ed. <strong>Egypt: Child of Africa</strong>. <em>New Brunswick: Journal of African Civilizations, 1994.</em></p><p>Van Sertima, Ivan, and Larry Williams, eds. <strong>Great African Thinkers. Vol. 1, Cheikh Anta Diop</strong>. <em>New Brunswick: Journal of African Civilizations, 1986.</em></p><p>Williams, Chancellor. <strong>The Destruction of Black Civilization: Great Issues of a Race from 4500 B.C. to 2000 A.D</strong>. <em>Rev. ed. Chicago: Third World Press, 1974.</em></p><p><a href="http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/humanity.html">THE AFRICAN ROOTS OF HUMANITY AND CIVILIZATION KEYNOTE ADDRESS FOR AFRICA DAY 2000 COMMEMORATION</a></p>Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-11787516867655237352007-06-01T21:33:00.000-04:002007-06-01T21:36:02.960-04:00African Roots of Humanity and Civilization - Part V - Australia and Oceanica<p align="center"><strong>THE BLACK PRESENCE IN AUSTRALIA AND OCEANICA</strong></p> <p><strong>The Black Presence in Australia: Fighting for Survival</strong></p> <p>Australia was settled at least 50,000 years ago by people who call themselves Blackfellas, and who are usually referred to as the Australian Aborigines. Physically, the Blackfellas are distinguished by straight to wavy hair textures, and dark to near black complexions. In January 1788, when Britain began using Australia as a prison colony, an estimated 300,000 indigenous people were spread across the continent in about six-hundred small-scale societies. Each of these communities maintained social, religious, and trade connections with its neighbors.</p> <p>The dumping of British convicts into Australia proved catastrophic for the Blacks. Victims of deliberate poisonings, calculated and systematic slaughters; decimated by tuberculosis and syphilis; swept away by infectious epidemics; their community structures and moral fibers shredded, by the 1930's the Blackfellas had been reduced to a pathetic remnant of about 30,000 people, and perhaps twice that number of mixed descent.</p> <p>When the continent was invaded by Europeans in the nineteenth century, the white historians who wrote about Australia invariably included a section on the Blacks, and acknowledged that the original inhabitants of the continent had had an historical role. After 1850, however, few writers referred to the Blacks at all. The Black were thought of as a "dying race." By 1950 general histories of the continent by European-Australians almost never referenced the indigenous people. During this period--the indigenous people--whether part or full blood, were excluded from all major European-Australian institutions, including schools, hospitals and labor unions. They could not vote. Their movements were restricted. They were outcasts in white Australia.</p> <p>Today, the Blacks of Australia are terribly oppressed, and they remain in a desperate struggle for survival. Recent demographic surveys, for example, show that the Black infant mortality rate is the highest in Australia. Aborigines have the shoddiest housing and the poorest schools. Their life expectancy is twenty years less than Europeans. Their unemployment rate is six times higher than the national average. Aborigines did not obtain the right to vote in federal elections until 1961, nor the right to consume alcoholic beverages until 1964. They were not officially counted as Australian citizens until after a constitutional amendment in 1967. Today, the indigenous people constitute less than two per cent of the total Australian population.</p> <p>Perhaps the Blackfellas should consider themselves fortunate. The Black aborigines of Tasamania were completely destroyed. Tasmania, an island only slightly larger than West Virginia, lies two-hundred miles off Australia's southeast coast. In 1802, following mainland Australia, Tasmania was established as a British prison colony. The colonial government itself was not even inclined to consider the Tasmanians as full human beings. To the Europeans of the island, the Tasmanians were a people fit only to be exploited in the cruelest of manners. European convicts regularly hunted Tasmanians for sport, casually shooting, spearing or clubbing the men to death, torturing and raping the women. Europeans murdered Tasmanians for use as dog food. Tasmanian infants were burned alive. Tasmanian women were kidnapped and chained, and exploited as sexual slaves. Between 1802 and 1830 the Tasmanians were reduced from an estimated five-thousand people to less than seventy-five.</p> <p>In May, 1876 Truganinni, the last Tasmanian, died at seventy-three years of age. Her mother had been stabbed to death by a European. Her sisters were kidnapped by Europeans. Her intended husband was drowned by two Europeans in her presence, while his murderers raped her. It might be accurately said that Truganinni's numerous personal sufferings typify the tragedy of the Tasmanian people as a whole. After her burial, Truganinni's body was exhumed, and her skeleton, strung upon wires and placed upright in a box, became for many years the most popular exhibit in the Tasmanian Museum, and remained on display until 1947. Finally, in 1976--the centenary year of Truganinni's death--despite the museum's objections, her skeleton was cremated and her ashes scattered at sea. Truganinni's life spanned to the year the beginning of the "association" between Europeans and Tasmanians. During this period the Tasmanians were humiliated, degraded, and eventually exterminated.</p> <p><strong>Melanesia: The Struggle Continues</strong></p> <p>In the 1970s Ben Tanggahma, Foreign Minister of Papua New Guinea, pointed out that "Africa is our motherland. All of the Black populations which settled in Asia over the hundreds of thousands of years, came undoubtedly from the African continent. In fact, the entire world was populated from Africa. Hence, we the Blacks in Asia and the Pacific today descend from proto-African peoples. We were linked to Africa in the past. We are linked to Africa in the present. We will be linked to Africa in the future."</p> <p>C. Madang has described Melanesia (the Black Islands of the South Pacific) as the eastern flank of the black world, and the expression of ages past when an uninterrupted belt of Black populations stretched across Africa, Eurasia, Australia, Oceanica, and ancient America. To the contrary, the present Mongoloid inhabitants of Indonesia entered the region during relatively recent times; a period which some scientists have dated to as late as the first millennium C.E.</p> <p>As was the case in Japan, the Philippines, China, Taiwan and Southeast Asia, the Mongoloid invaders found the land already occupied by long-settled Black populations. These new peoples, to a very basic extent, eventually absorbed, vanquished or drove the Blacks into generally inaccessible areas, including the deep forests, high mountains, and remote islands where they remain to this day.</p> <p>By the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the Muslim Indonesian sultanate of Tidore was raiding the coasts of New Guinea in search of chattels for the markets of Turkey, Iraq and the Chinese empire. It is even said that the Malay term "Papuan" (literally "kinky-haired"), which was applied to the Melanesians of New Guinea, was born out of scorn and contempt, and eventual became synonymous with "slave."</p> <p>New Guinea itself is the biggest and most populous of the islands of Melanesia. Indeed, it is the largest island in the world after Greenland. It is tremendously wealthy in mineral resources, including: uranium, copper, cobalt, silver, gold, manganese, iron and oil. Now split into two by colonial design, New Guinea has until lately contained a racially homogeneous population of five to six million Africoid people. The eastern half of the island became independent in 1975 under the name of Papua New Guinea, with Michael Somare as its Prime Minister. The western half of New Guinea, however, along with a significant portion of the island's total population (estimated at three to four million people), has been seized by Indonesia as its twenty-sixth "province."</p> <p>For the people of West New Guinea, Indonesia has been and continues to be a brutal and aggressive occupying power. Under Indonesian rule since 1963, the Melanesians have been prone to both physical and cultural genocide. Indonesians generally have a condescending view of Melanesians, who they consider their racial inferiors--except, of course, those who turn away from their own culture and choose to identify with Indonesian cultural values, behavior modes and language. Additionally, members of the Indonesian military and other high government officials possess considerable wealth in West New Guinea, and are firmly resolved not to share it with the Melanesians.</p> <p>Melanesians living in the forest communities of West New Guinea have been subjected to forced labor schemes, while in urban areas Melanesians face overt racial discrimination. A major part of the Indonesian regime's genocidal policy, in fact, is the physical replacement of Melanesians with Indonesian nationals. This poses the distinct possibility that the Melanesians of West New Guinea, like those of Fiji, could become a minority in their own country.</p> <p>Indonesia's naked offensive in New Guinea has not been met with passivity. In 1963, for example, when the Dutch occupation of West New Guinea ended and control passed to Indonesia, the struggle for national independence accelerated. In that year the Free Papua Movement (OPM) was formed. Interesting enough, the Republic of Senegal early on provided its territory as a base for the international activities of the self-proclaimed Revolutionary Provisional Government of West Papua New Guinea.</p> <p>Indonesian territorial aggression in Melanesia has not been confined to New Guinea. In 1975, for example, East Timor, a former Portuguese colony, was formally annexed as Indonesia's twenty-seventh "province." A Timorese national liberation movement, the Revolutionary Front of Independent East Timor (FRETILIN)was formed in September 1974, and was inspired by the revolutionary nationalism of African resistance leaders from other former Portuguese colonies--Dr. Eduardo Mondlane of Mozambique, Dr. Agostinho Neto of Angola, and Amilcar Cabral of Guinea-Bissau.</p> <p>During the course of East Timor's national independence struggle, Indonesia has coordinated an unrelenting extermination campaign against the indigenous people. The Timorese have been bombed, shot, tortured and starved by the invading Indonesian army, with more than fifteen per cent of the total East Timorese population murdered. Despite adverse official reactions by some Western governments, none of these countries has imposed economic sanctions or adopted forceful policies against Indonesia to coerce its withdrawal.</p> <p>New Caledonia, another mineral wealthy South Pacific island, lies hundreds of miles to the southeast of Indonesia and is currently a French colony. To New Caledonia's Kanak Socialist National Liberation Front (FLNKS), the grouping of political parties representing the majority of New Caledonia's 64,000 Melanesians, the principle of national self-determination is crystal clear. Although the Blacks are now said to constitute less than fifty per cent of the total New Caledonian population, they were in fact native to the land 4,000 years before the 1853 French invasion. The Melanesians of New Caledonia, known as Kanaks, want their island to become an independent country run by and for Melanesians.</p> <h3 align="center"><img src="http://blackherbals.com/bd14538_.gif" border="0" height="10" width="35%" /><img src="http://blackherbals.com/bd14538_.gif" border="0" height="10" width="35%" /></h3> <strong></strong>Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-55396454406859582292007-06-01T21:28:00.000-04:002007-06-04T00:14:33.555-04:00African Roots of Humanity and Civilization - Part IV - Americas<p align="center"><strong>THE AFRICAN PRESENCE IN EARLY AMERICA</strong></p><p><strong>The First Americans</strong></p><p>Most modern scientists believe that the earliest immigrants to reach the Western Hemisphere were Asian Mongoloids. It would appear, however, that this general view ignores evidence that strongly suggests that the first people to arrive and settle in the Western Hemisphere were Black people of very ancient African ancestry.</p><p>European-American archaeologist Harold Sterling Gladwin (1883-1983) advanced that the first actual migrants to America were Afro-Australoids. The Afro-Australoid migrations to America probably began about 40,000 years ago and lasted for several millennia. These migrants are called "Australoids" because of their close physical and cultural relationships to the people who more than 50,000 years ago colonized much of Asia and Australia.</p><p>One of the most well-documented single pieces of evidence for the presence of Afro-Australoids in the prehistoric Americas during the period of Gladwin's writing was the Punin Skull: a female crania found in 1923, embedded in a stratum of volcanic ash near the small village of Punin in the Andean region of Ecuador. In addition to the skull itself, the stratum yielded the remains of a number of long extinct mammals; including an Andean horse--an animal known to have been extinct for more than 10,000 years. The Punin Skull's recovery by the American Museum of Natural History of New York created a sensation. It was, first of all, hailed as the earliest evidence of humans in the Americas, and, secondly, it was clearly of an Afro-Australoid type. On these two issues "the leading experts" agreed. According to British anatomist Arthur Keith (1886-1955):</p><blockquote><p>"When the expedition returned to New York from Ecuador, the skull was transferred to the Anthropological side of the Museum, where it was examined and described by Drs. Louis R. Sullivan and Milo Hellman. Both anthropologists were struck by its resemblance to the skulls of the native women of Australia. I agree with them; the points of resemblance are too numerous to permit us to suppose that the skull could be of a sort produced by an American Indian parentage. We cannot suppose that an Australian native woman had been spirited across the Pacific in some migratory movement and that afterwards her skull was buried in a fossiliferous bed in the high plateau of Ecuador...The discovery at Punin does compel us to look into the possibility of a Pleistocene invasion of America by an Australoid people."</p></blockquote><p>Harvard anthropologist Earnest Houghton echoed Keith, although in somewhat less detail:</p><blockquote><p>"The Punin skull, found in 1923 in a fossiliferous bed in the Andean highlands of Ecuador...is a skull that any competent craniologist would identify as Australian in type. It is easier to find Australoid-looking dolichocephals in the more ancient burials in the New World than anything in the way of a skull that resembles a Mongoloid."</p></blockquote><p>The second migration to the Americas, Asiatic-Africoids, began about 15,000 years ago. These migrants' physical appearance seems to have resembled the Melanesians--the proud Black Islanders of the South Pacific. After having first penetrated their way northward up the coasts of Asia, they began to gradually enter North America, where they ultimately developed the revolutionary and highly pivotal Clovis and Folsom fluted-point tool industries.</p><p>Clovis and Folsom were the respective locations (both of them in New Mexico, U.S.A.) that provided the first evidences of the earliest projectile points associated with the Big Game Hunting Traditions of North America. Clovis points have been reliably dated to between 11,000 and 11,500 years before present. Folsom points, which are usually smaller, more refined and sophisticated than their Clovis antecedents, were actually identified before the Clovis points, and have been dated to about 10,000 B.C.E. Both Clovis and Folsom spearheads were several inches long and were characterized by smoothly fluted or grooved channels extending lengthwise along both faces. Their precision and firepower were revolutionary and awesome; and their rapidly widespread usage, with the increasingly greater food supplies that resulted, laid the basis for steadily larger American populations.</p><p>It is of further interest that the first known modern discovery and revelation of the existence of these tool industries was made by an African-American; a tantalizingly and frustratingly obscure, self-taught naturalist and archaeologist named George McJunkin. The son of slaves, McJunkin, whose name may be searched for unsuccessfully in most history books, made the find in 1908 while riding out to check fence posts at a flooded creek. In 1925, three years after McJunkin's death, a dig at the Folsom site revealed a 10,000 year old spear point piercing the ribs of an extinct species of bison. It was McJunkin though, the obscure African-American, who had first documented Folsom points, which were then regarded (this was before the discovery of Ecuador's Punin Skull) "as the first unequivocal evidence of late Ice Age humans ever unearthed in the Americas."</p><p>The Clovis-Folsom Point Blacks seem to have come to North America in relatively small numbers. Later migrations of essentially the same physical type populated most of the rest of North America south of Canada. Their movements into the New World were then slowed, and later halted altogether, by the Australoid populations that were already well established in the North American Southwest. The later period Basket Makers of Arizona (the prehistoric culture bearers who eventually evolved into North America's Pueblo peoples) were probably the result of a fusion of Clovis-Folsom Point Blacks with the numerically larger Afro-Australoid populations.</p><p>Fossil remains of these early Black folk have been found in Baja, California, northeastern Mexico, Central America and in various parts of South America. Ancient Mongoloids, it now appears, followed the early Black immigrants and, after several thousand years, became the dominant people in the New World. Gladwin himself stated that, "The arrival of the Eskimo along the Arctic Coasts marked a fundamental transition in the anthropological history of North America. It was the last of a series of long-headed migrations, and the broad faces and slant eyes of the Eskimo marked the initial stage of a long period of Mongoloid domination in lands where Mongoloid people had therefore been unknown."</p><p>Mongoloid peoples, in fact, were soon coming to the Americas in such massive numbers, crossing the Bering Strait in boats rather than across the Beringia land bridge, that they eventually almost totally absorbed the New World's earlier arrivals. The resulting fusion of peoples constituted the native American populations at the time of the catastrophic European intrusions during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The earlier arrived Blacks (the very first Americans) tended to fade away with increasing rapidity into the shadowy realms of fairy tales, myths and legends. Some native legends of the Americas abound with exploits of early Black people. An Inuit legend, for example, explains that:</p><blockquote><p>"A man and his wife and their only daughter lived in a remote place. Their daughter was outside, working when she saw a big black speck moving along the ground, coming towards her. When it got closer, she realized it was a man with a sledge. The man and the sledge were all black. He came towards the house, stopped, and said to the girl, `I have come to take you with me.' He was black all over, even his face. The girl replied, `Very well. I'll go and tell my parents.' She entered the igloo and the man followed her. He stood outside the door and told the father, `I have come to take your daughter away with me.' The father replied, `I won't have my daughter going away with a black man like you.' The stranger became angry and made a step forward with his right foot. The whole house shook. Then the father said to his daughter, `My daughter, you'll have to go away with this man. This will go badly with us if you don't.' She got ready and left the house, with the stranger behind her. Before leaving, he put his left foot down hard on the floor and the house shook again. He went out, put the girl on the sledge and shoved the sledge because it had no huskies. After a while they saw a house--the man's house. They stopped and entered. Everything inside was black, and his parents also were completely black."</p></blockquote><p>For the Greenlander, the color black symbolizes strength and wisdom--traditionally he was not allowed to wear black boots until he had become a skilled hunter and reached a respectable age--but black is also associated with spirits and occult forces. In the Southwest Indian story of the Emergence, a story that is as important in the region as the Book of Genesis is to Christians, the First World is called the Black World.</p><p><strong>The First Civilization of the Americas: The Olmecs</strong></p><p>The Olmec (2000 B.C.E. to 300 C.E.) were an early people of Meso-America, who settled the Mexican Gulf Coast. This ancient American culture been labeled the first civilization of the western hemisphere, as they surpassed their neighbors in an attempt to settle certain problems of living together--of government, defense, religion, family, property, science and art. In this endeavor, the Olmecs laid the foundations of American civilization. No one knows whence the Olmecs came or whether they were direct derivatives of the indigenous population; but that much of their sculpture, especially the colossal heads, evidences an ancient Africoid presence in the Americas is beyond sane rebuttal. In fact, some scientists have concluded that the Olmecs may have originally have been an African settler-colony which conquered the indigenous population of southern Mexico. Others are convinced that the Black presence among the Olmecs merely consisted of a small but elite and highly-influential community.</p><p>Sculptural and skeletal remains found in ancient Olmec sites provide the most conclusive evidence yet discovered concerning the presence of African people in America before Columbus. The most pronounced and widely acknowledged Africoid sculptural representations to appear in the ancient "New World" were produced by the Olmecs. At least fifteen colossal stone heads, weighing ten to forty tons, have been unearthed in Olmec sites along the Mexican Gulf Coast. One of the first European-American scientists to comment on the "Olmec heads,"archaeologist Matthew Stirling, described their facial features as "amazingly Negroid."</p><p>In 1974, Polish craniologist Andrzej Wiercinski informed the Congress of Americanists that skulls from Olmec and other pre-Christian sites in Mexico (Tlatilco, Cerro de las Mesas and Monte Alban) "show a clear prevalence of the total Negroid pattern."</p><p>Other scientists have found a host of cultural parallels between ancient Africans and native Americans, including architectural patterns and religious practices. As for the latter, some native American communities worshipped black gods of great antiquity, such as Ekchuah, Quetzalcoatl, Yalahau, Nahualpilli and Ixtliltic, long before the first African slave arrived in the New World.</p><p>Harun Kofi Wangara (1928-1989) wrote that:</p><blockquote><p>"Black seamen, who can be specifically identified as Mandinga, brought the West African gold trade to the Americas. This is established through African designations for gold, the West African method of alloying gold, its ceremonial as well as trade value and, more important, the identity of the Blacks who trafficked in it."</p></blockquote><p>During his third voyage, Columbus recorded that when he reached Haiti the resident population informed him that Black men from the south and southeast had preceded him to the island. In 1513, Balboa found a colony of Black men on his arrival in Darien, Central American.</p><p>All of these facts, buttressed by skeletons and sculptures, make it clear that African people have had a profound presence and influence in pre-Columbian America. Some scholars, such as Carlos C. Marquez, have even concluded that "the youthful America was also a Negro continent.</p><p><a href="http://africanherbals.com/african_roots_of_humanity">http://africanherbals.com/african_roots_of_humanity</a></p><p>_and_ci.htm<br /></p><h3 align="center"><img height="10" src="http://blackherbals.com/bd14538_.gif" width="35%" border="0" /></h3>Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-89219808628856050562007-06-01T21:23:00.000-04:002007-06-01T21:26:17.562-04:00African Roots of Humanity and Civilization - Part II -Europe<p align="center"><strong>THE AFRICAN PRESENCE IN EARLY EUROPE</strong></p> <p><strong>Minoan Crete</strong></p> <p>The first civilization of Europe was established on the island of Crete. It is called the Minoan Culture, after King Minos, an early legendary ruler of the island. It has been argued that the ancestors of the Cretans were natives of Africa, a branch of Western Ethiopians.</p> <p>Minoan Crete, the forerunner of Greek civilization, is the earliest known European high-culture. Although modest in size (170 miles east to west, thirty-five miles north to south), Crete exercised immeasurable influence on the Aegean archipelago, Western Asia, and the Greek mainland. Throughout Crete the vestiges of complex palaces, paved highways, aqueducts, terracotta pipes for drainage, and irrigation canals provide plentiful proof of Minoan ingenuity in the areas of scientific and technical innovation. The Minoans possessed registered trademarks, uniform weights and measures, calendrical systems based on precise astronomical observations, and advanced scripts. Interestingly enough, there were few fortifications on the island.</p> <p>While the cultural and technical prowess of ancient Crete appears relatively well known, the ethnic make-up of the early population and the direction from which sprang its impetus for civilization is much more hotly debated. John G. Jackson advocates the view that Minoan civilization is African-rooted. He believes that the ancestors of the Minoans "dwelt in the grasslands of North Africa before that area dried up and became a great desert. As the Saharan sands encroached on their homeland, they took to the sea, and in Crete and neighboring islands set up a maritime culture."</p> <p>Arthur Evans (1851-1941), who conducted extensive excavations on the island, was convinced of African migrations to Neolithic Crete. He noted that: "The multiplicity of these connections with the old indigenous race of the opposite African coast, and with which we undoubtedly have to deal with in the predynastic population of the Nile Valley, can in fact be hardly explained on any other hypothesis than that of an actual settlement in Southern Crete."</p> <p><strong>Moorish Civilizers of Europe</strong></p> <p>It would not be inaccurate to say that the Moors helped reintroduce Europe to civilization. But just who were the Moors of antiquity anyway? Chancellor Williams has written that "The original Moors, like the original Egyptians, were Black Africans." Much of the apparent confusion about Moorish ethnicity may be related to the fact that the same people who were called Moors in Europe, were known in Arab literature as Berbers. Indeed, in Arabic texts the word Moor was fairly non-existent and the term Berber was applied to practically all the inhabitants of ancient northwest Africa.</p> <p>Early in the eighth century, after a grim and extended resistance to the Arab invasions of North Africa, the Moors, or Berbers, joined the triumphant surge of Islam. Following this, numbers of them crossed over to the Iberian peninsula, where their swift victories and remarkable feats became the substance of legends.</p> <p>The man chosen to lead the eighth century probe into Iberia was Tarif, son of Zar`a ibn Abi Mudrik. Tarif was one of the young generation of Islamized Berbers imbued with the military philosophy of Hassan ibn al-Nu`man and Musa ibn Nusayr--the two men who had just commanded the Arab conquest of northwest Africa. In July 710, Tarif, with four-hundred foot soldiers and one-hundred horse, all Berbers, successfully carried out a reconnaissance mission in southern Iberia. Tarifa, a small port in southern Spain, is named after him.</p> <p>It is clear, however, that the actual conquest of Spain was undertaken upon the initiative of Tarik ibn Ziyad. Tarik ibn Ziyad ibn `Abd Allah ibn Walghu was a member of the Warfadjuma branch of the Nafza Berbers. Musa ibn Nusayr had previously appointed him governor of the far western Maghrib (Islamic North Africa west of Egypt), which covered what is today the southern part of the kingdom of Morocco. Tarik was in command of an army of at least 10,000 men, mainly Sanhadja Berbers.</p> <p>In 711, with a Berber expeditionary force and a small number of Arab translators and propagandists (some say three-hundred), Tarik crossed the straits and disembarked near a rocky promontory which from that day since has borne his name: Djabal Tarik (`Tarik's mountain'), or, Gibraltar. In August 711, he won a paramount victory over the Visigoth army. It was during this conflict that Roderick (the last Visigoth king) was killed. On the eve of the battle, Tarik is alleged to have roused his troops with the following words: "My brethren, the enemy is before you, the sea is behind; whither would ye fly? Follow your general: I am resolved either to lose my life or to trample on the prostate king of the Romans."</p> <p>Wasting no time to relish his victory, Tarik pushed on with his seemingly tireless Berber cavalry to Toledo and seized the Visigoth capital. Within a month's time, Tarik ibn Ziyad had effectively terminated Visigothic dominance of the Iberian peninsula.</p> <p>Musa ibn Nusayr joined Tarik in Spain and helped complete the conquest of Iberia with an army of 18,000 Arab and Berber troops. The two commanders met at Talavera, where Tarik and his Berbers were given the task of subduing the northwest of Spain. With vigor and speed they set about their mission, and within three months they had swept the entire territory north of the Ebro River as far as the Pyrenees, and annexed the turbulent Basque country. There they left a small detachment of men under Munusa, a Berber lieutenant who was later to play a decisive role in the Muslim campaigns in southern France.</p> <p>In the aftermath of these brilliant struggles, Berbers by the thousand flooded into the Iberian peninsula. So eager were they to come that some are said to have floated over on tree-trunks. Tarik himself, at the conclusion of his illustrious military career, retired to the distant East, we are informed, to spread the teachings of Islam.</p> <p><strong>St. Maurice: Knight of the Holy Lance</strong></p> <p>The name Maurice is derived from Latin and means "like a Moor." The Black St. Maurice (the Knight of the Holy Lance) was patron saint of the Holy Roman Empire. The earliest version of the Maurice story and the account upon which all later versions are based, is found in the writings of Eucherius, Bishop of Lyons (ca. 450). According to Eucherius, Maurice was a high official in the The baid region of Egypt--an early center of Christianity. Specifically, Maurice was the commander of a Roman legion of Christian soldiers stationed in Africa. By the decree of Roman emperor Maximian, his contingent of 6,600 men was dispatched to Gaul and ordered to suppress a Christian uprising there. Maurice disobeyed the order. Subsequently, he and almost all of his troops were martyred when they chose to die rather than persecute Christians, renounce their faith, and sacrifice to the gods of the Romans. The execution of the Thebans occurred in Switzerland near Agaunum (which later became Saint Maurice-en-Valais) on September 22, either in the year 280 or 300.</p> <p>In the second half of the fourth century the worship of St. Maurice spread over a broad area in Switzerland, northern Italy, Burgundy, and along the Rhine. Tours, Angers, Lyons, Chalon-sur-Saone, and Dijon had churches dedicated to St. Maurice. By the epoch of Islamic Spain, the stature of St. Maurice had reached immense proportions. Charlemagne (768-814), grandson of Charles Martel and the most distinguished representative of the Carolingian Dynasty, attributed to St. Maurice the virtues of the perfect Christian warrior. In token of victory, Charlemagne had the Lance of St. Maurice (a replica of the holy lance reputed to have pierced the side of Christ) carried before the Frankish army. Like the general populace, which strongly relied on St. Maurice for intercession, the Carolingian Dynasty prayed to this military saint for the strength to resist and overcome attacks by enemy forces.</p> <p>A center of extreme devotion to St. Maurice was developed in the Baltic states, where merchants in Tallin and Riga adopted his iconography. The House of the Black Heads of Riga, for instance, possessed a polychromed wooden statuette of St. Maurice. Their seal bore the distinct image of a Moor's head. The existence of nearly three hundred major images of the Black St. Maurice have been catalogued, and even today the veneration of St. Maurice remains alive in numerous cathedrals in eastern Germany.</p> <p><strong>Sir Morien: Black Knight of the European Middle Ages</strong></p> <p>Few documents portray the ethnicity of the Moors in medieval Europe with more passion, boldness and clarity than Morien. Morien is a metrical romance rendered into English prose from the medieval Dutch version of the Lancelot. In the Lancelot, it occupies more than five thousand lines and forms the ending of the first extant volume of that compilation. Neither the date of the original poem or the name of the author is known. The Dutch manuscript is dated to the beginning of the fourteenth century. The whole work is a translation, and apparently a very faithful translation, of a French original. It is quite clear that the Dutch compiler understood his text well, and though possibly somewhat fettered by the requirement of turning prose into verse, he renders it with uncommon fidelity.</p> <p>Morien is the adventure of a splendidly heroic Moorish knight (possibly a Christian convert), supposed to have lived during the days of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. Morien is described as follows: "He was all black, even as I tell ye: his head, his body, and his hands were all black, saving only his teeth. His shield and his armour were even those of a Moor, and black as a raven."</p> <p>It is noted that Morien was as "black as pitch; that was the fashion of his land--Moors are black as burnt brands." Ultimately, and ironically, Morien came to personify all of the finest virtues of the knights of medieval Europe. According to Gerald Massey (1829-1907), "Morion is said to have been the architect of Stonehenge.... Now, as a negro is still known as a Morien in English, may not this indicate that Morien belonged to the black race, the Kushite builders?" It should be noted that for a very long period the Dutch language used Moor and Moriaan for Black Africans. Among the Lorma community in modern Liberia, the name Moryan is still prominent.</p> <p><strong>The Expulsion and Dispersal of the Moors</strong></p> <p>In Iberia, Christian pressures on the Moors grew irresistible. Finally, in 1492, Granada, the last important Muslim stronghold in al-Andalus, was taken by the soldiers of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, and the Moors were expelled from Spain. In 1496, to appease Isabella, King Manuel of Portugal announced a royal decree banishing the Moors from that portion of the peninsula. The Spanish king Philip III expelled the remaining Moors by a special decree issued in 1609. Fully 3,500,000 Moors, or Moriscos, as their descendants were called, left Spain between 1492 and 1610. Over a million Moors settled in France. Others moved into Holland. A very curious story in the Netherlands is that of Zwarte Piet (Black Peter). By some accounts Zwarte Piet, the companion to Sinterklaas (Santa Claus), was a Moorish orphan boy whom Sinterklaas adopted and trained as his assistant!</p> <p><strong>Britons and Vikings</strong></p> <p>David MacRitchie (1851-1925), author of Ancient and Modern Britons, was convinced that the Moors were Black people who played an important role in the early settlement of Britain:</p> <blockquote> <p>"For although it may not be easy to trace their route hither, and the date of their arrival, a branch of this family did inhabit Britain, and are not only known as Mauri and Moors, but also as Moravienses, Morienses, Murray-men, and people of Moray or Moravia.</p> <p>The `Moors' are still largely represented throughout the British Islands; although of course the crossing and re-crossing of thirty generations, while increasing the number of descendants, has lessened the intensity of the resemblance to the ancestral stock. But the swarthy hue asserts itself still, though in a modified degree. Last century, when Martin described the Western Islands of Scotland, he remarked that the complexion of the natives of Skye was `for the most part black,' of the natives of Jura he said that they were generally black of complexion,' and of Arran that they were `generally brown, and some of black complexion.'</p> <p>The legends and the history of the Scottish Highlands are both witnesses to the existence of purely black people. The Welsh traditions bear a similar testimony. The hero Peredur, Son of Evrawc, discovers a company of `bald, swarthy youths,' sitting at the hall- door of a black giant, playing at chess. This giant is styled the Black Oppressor, and seems to have been of the same genial nature as the `black knight' of Ashton-under-Lyne. He very frankly informs Peredur that `for this reason I am called the Black Oppressor, that there is not a single man around me whom I have not oppressed; and justice have I done unto none.'"</p> </blockquote> <p>A prominent Viking of the eleventh century was Thorhall, who was aboard the ship that carried the Vikings to the shores of North America. Thorhall was "the huntsman in summer, and in winter the steward of Eric the Red. He was, it is said, `a large man, and strong, black, and like a giant, silent, and foul-mouthed in his speech, and always egged on Eric to the worst; he was a bad Christian.'" We also have knowledge of the "African sea-rovers, the Fomorians, who had a main stronghold on Tory Island, off the Northwest Coast," and who came to be regarded as the "sinister forces in Irish mythology."</p> <p><strong>Alexander Sergeievich Pushkin: Great Black Russian</strong></p> <p>Of all the Blacks in Russian history, few have achieved greater fame than Alexander Sergeievich Pushkin. Born in Moscow on May 26, 1799 of well-to-do parents--members of the Russian aristocracy, Pushkin was proudly descended, on his mother's side, from Major-General Ibrahim Petrovich Hannibal--an Ethiopian prince who became a favorite of Tsar Peter I (1682-1725). Pushkin has been positively identified as the very father of Russian literature. He composed in the Russian language at a time when most, if not all, Russian intellectuals were writing in French. Pushkin died prematurely, defending his honor in a duel, in January 1837. Today, Pushkin's name is loftily borne by twenty museums. Of Pushkin, Feodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881) wrote:</p> <blockquote> <p>"No Russian writer was ever so intimately at one with the Russian people as Pushkin... Without him (Pushkin) we should have lost, not literature alone, but much of our irresistible force, our faith in our national individuality, our belief in the people's power, and most of all our belief in our destiny."</p> </blockquote> <p>Maxim Gorky (1868-1936) wrote that, "Pushkin is the greatest master in the world. Pushkin, in our country, is the beginning of all beginnings. He most beautifully expressed the spirit of our people." Allison Blakley writes that, "Pushkin was truly the Russian counterpart to Shakespeare."</p><p>http://blackherbals.com/african_roots_of_humanity_and_ci.htm<br /></p> <h3 align="center"><img src="http://blackherbals.com/bd14538_.gif" border="0" height="10" width="35%" /></h3>Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-84064117143985380602007-06-01T21:19:00.000-04:002007-06-01T21:20:37.095-04:00African Roots of Humanity_and Civilization - Part II<p align="center"><strong>THE AFRICAN PRESENCE IN ASIA</strong></p> <p><strong>The First Asians</strong></p> <p>The earliest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) populations of Asia were also of African birth. Here we are speaking of the Diminutive Africoids--the extremely important and much romanticized family of Black people phenotypically characterized by: unusually short statures; skin-complexions that range from yellowish to dark brown; tightly curled hair; and, in frequent cases (like many other Blacks), steatopygia. They are probably more familiar to us by such pejorative terms as pygmies," "negritos" and "negrillos." Similar peoples who live today in Southern Africa have been titled Bushmen." More accurate names for these latter people are San (translated as "original inhabitants").</p> <p>Moving slowly and sporadically from their African birthplace, beginning perhaps 100,000 years ago and continuing through the millennia, untold numbers of Diminutive Africoids began to people Asia. Although they currently exist in limited numbers, and are generally found in heavily forested, barren, isolated or similarly forbidding terrains, the Diminutive Africoids were at one time the supreme lords of the earth. It is indeed unfortunate that the histories of the Diminutive Africoids, including distinct and fundamental contributions to monumental civilizations characterized by agricultural science, metallurgy, advanced scripts and urbanization, are so little understood.</p> <p>Next, in the sequence of the Black presence in Asia, were the Afro-Australoids. These are the Blacks who spread into Asia, and ultimately Australia itself, at least 50,000 years ago. What the forces and factors were that gave rise to their migratory movements we do not know. Like the Diminutive Africoids, no comprehensive histories of the Afro-Australoids have been written, and all we really have are the tattered and tantalizing fragments of what this archaic period must have been like.</p> <p>The Afro-Australoids constituted a significant factor in the initial peopling of South Arabia; with their skeletal remains also having been exhumed from sites in Iraq. In South Asia they proliferated, and are six million strong today in eastern and central India, where they are known as Mundas and Kolarians. A Munda sub-group, the Gonds, form the root word of the semi-mythical, submerged continent of Gondwanaland, reputed to have formed an extensive land-bridge joining East Africa to South Asia. The Veddas--an Afro-Australoid population in Sri Lanka, represent the oldest known occupants of that island-nation.</p> <p>It was perhaps waves of Afro-Australoids, who, characterized by straight to wavy hair textures, and dark to near black complexions, after having ventured into the northeastern stretches of Asia, through a process that is only vaguely understood, diverged from the original parent stock into the Mongoloid or "yellow" ethnic types of modern times.</p> <p><strong>Eastern Asia</strong></p> <p>Certainly, traces of Blacks have been found in both the prehistoric and historic periods throughout the latitudes of northeastern Asia. A recent Associated Press report, for example, stated that, "The oldest Stone Age hut in Japan has been unearthed near Osaka.... Archeologists date the hut to about 22,000 years ago and say it resembles the dugouts of African bushmen." A Japanese proverb states that "Half the blood in one's veins must be black to make a good Samurai." We also have knowledge, in Japan, of Sakanouye Tamura Maro (ca. 800 C.E.), the Black general who led the Japanese armies into battle against the Ainu. Tamura Maro's successful generalship ultimately won him the Japanese shogunate.</p> <p>In China an Africoid presence is visible from remote antiquity through the major historical periods. The Shang, for example, China's first dynasty, apparently had a Black background, so much so that the conquering Chou described them as having "black and oily skin." The famous Chinese sage, Lao-Tze (ca. 600 B.C.E.), was "black in complexion." Lao-Tze was described as "marvelous and beautiful as jasper." Magnificent and ornate temples were erected for him, inside of which he was worshipped like a god.</p> <p>Funan is the name given by Chinese historians to the earliest kingdom of Southeast Asia. Its builders were a Black people known as Khmers, a name that loudly recalls ancient Kmt (Egypt). In remote antiquity the Khmers seem to have established themselves throughout a vast area that encompassed Myanmar, Kampuchea, Laos, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam. Emerging during the third century, the kingdom of Funan spread over southern Kampuchea and Vietnam. A Chinese observer described the Funanese men as small and black, and noted the Khmer's impressive libraries and high regard for scholars.</p> <p>The story of Southeast Asia's Black kingdoms is essentially the story of the African people in early Asia itself: the creators and innovators of nation-states and powerful civilizations, only to be overwhelmed in the end. The Black presence in Asia, however, has been deeply etched, and the Asian nations of today, whether conscious of it or not, have merely raised themselves under a guiding African tutelage.</p> <p><strong>Western Asia</strong></p> <p>Sumer (the Biblical land of Shinar) was the formative civilizing influence in early West Asia. Flourishing during the third millennium B.C.E., Sumer set the tone and established the guidelines for the kingdoms and empires which succeeded her. Frequently designated as, or linked with, Chaldea and Babylonia, Sumer embraced the Tigris/Euphrates river valley from the base of the Persian Gulf north to Akkad, a distance of about 300 miles.</p> <p>While Sumer's many cultural and technical achievements are much celebrated, the important question of her ethnic composition is frequently either glossed over or left out of the discussion altogether. Independent and objective study of the available data however, reveals the very real question of whether the so-called "problem of Sumerian origins" is actual or artificial. The Sumerians did, after all, refer to themselves as "the Blackheaded people," and their most powerful and pious leaders, such as Gudea, consistently chose very dark (and preferably black) stone for their statuary representations. There is also no doubt that the oldest and most exalted deity of the Sumerians was Anu, a name that loudly recalls the thriving and widely-spread Black civilizers found at history's dawn in Africa, Asia and even Europe. Eye-witness accounts, religious similarities, linguistic affinities, skeletal evidence, Biblical references, architectural patterns, and oral traditions all point to an early African origin for the Sumerians of Iraq.</p> <p>Elam was the first civilization of Iran (formerly called Persia), and shared Sumer's eastern border. Diop points to the Africoid presence in early Elam, focusing especially on the region's artistic and sculptural remains identified by Marcel Dieulafoy from his late nineteenth century excavations at Susa. The district of Susa was generally thought by the ancients to be the residence and capital city of Memnon--the illustrious Black warrior-king. The heroic story of Memnon--his courage and prowess at the siege of Troy--was one of the most widely circulated and celebrated of antiquity. Memnon is mentioned repeatedly in the works of such writers as Aeschylus, Apollonius of Tyana, Athenaeus, Catullus, Dio Chrysostom, Hesiod, Ovid, Pausanias, Philostratus, Pindar, Quintus of Smyrna, Seneca, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo and Virgil. Arctinus of Miletus composed an epic poem entitled Ethiopia in which Memnon was the leading figure.</p> <p>Quintus of Smyrna credits Memnon with "bringing the countless tribes of his people who live in Ethiopia, land of the black man," to Priam's Troy in support of his war for survival against the hostile coalition of Greek city-states. "Memnon came to help them. Memnon was lord over the dark Ethiopians, and the host be brought seemed infinite. The Trojans were delighted to see him in their city."</p> <p>Herodotus (ca. 450 B.C.E.) regarded Colchis, a land located along the western slope of the Caucasus mountains near the Black Sea and considered the home of the Golden Fleece in Greek mythology, as an actual Kemetic colony. He not only pointed to the Colchians' black skin and woolly hair, but also to their oral traditions, language, methods of weaving, and practice of circumcision. He notes that:</p> <blockquote> <p>"It is undoubtedly a fact that the Colchians are of Egyptian descent. I noticed this myself before I heard anyone else mention it, and when it occurred to me I asked some questions both in Colchis and in Egypt, and found that the Colchians remembered the Egyptians more distinctly than the Egyptians remembered them. The Egyptians did, however, say that they thought the original Colchians were men from Sesostris' army. My own idea on the subject was based first on the fact that they have black skins and woolly hair (not that that amounts to much, as other nations have the same), and secondly, and more especially, on the fact that the Colchians, the Egyptians, and the Ethiopians are the only races which from ancient times have practised circumcision.... There is a further point of resemblance between the Colchians and the Egyptians: they share a method of weaving linen different from that of any other people."</p> </blockquote> <p>Saint Jerome, writing during the fourth century, called Colchis the "Second Ethiopia." Two hundred years later, Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem, described an "Ethiopian" presence in the same region. Even today, in the same district about which Herodotus wrote, exists a minute black-skinned and woolly-haired community.</p> <p>Phoenicia was the name given by Greeks in the first millennium B.C.E. to the coastal provinces of modern Lebanon and northern Palestine, although occasionally the term seems to have been applied to the entire Mediterranean seaboard from Syria to Palestine. Phoenicia was not considered a nation, in the strict sense of the word, but rather as a chain of coastal cities, of which the most important were Sidon, Byblos, Tyre and Ras Shamra. To the Greeks, the term Phoenician, from the root "Phoenix," had connotations of "red," and it is likely that the name was derived from the physical appearance of the people themselves.</p> <p>The Phoenicians were a coastal branch of the Canaanites, who, according to Biblical traditions, were the brothers of Kush (Ethiopia) and Mizraim (Egypt): members of the Hamite, or Kamite, ethnic family. The Bible says that the Canaanites, Ethiopians and Egyptians were all Black and of Nile Valley origin. Diop claims that "Phoenician history is therefore incomprehensible only if we ignore the Biblical data according to which the Phoenicians, in other words, the Canaanites, were originally Negroes, already civilized, with whom nomadic, uncultured white tribes [as represented by Abraham] later mixed." From this period, towards the middle of the second millennium B.C.E., the term Leuco (White) Syrians came to be applied to the newly arrived populations. Ultimately, says Diop, the people of Abraham and the already settled Canaanites fused to become the historical Hebrews. It was among the Canaanite peoples that one of the most momentous inventions in human history is attested--the alphabet.</p> <p>While acknowledging the Biblical data, the economic relations shared by the Kamites and the Phoenicians should not be minimized in explaining the strong sense of solidarity which generally existed between them. There was frequently a Kemetic presence: military, diplomatic, religious or commercial, both in the Canaanite hinterland and the Phoenician city-states themselves, and Diop goes on to state that, "Even throughout the most troubled periods of great misfortune, Egypt could count on the Phoenicians as one can count more or less on a brother."</p> <p>Spurred on by increasing population pressures, the Phoenicians, who were becoming increasingly mixed racially, had, by the middle of the second millennium B.C.E. developed a prowess on the seas, and were in the process of establishing a network of colonies and trading posts that not only brought them fame and prosperity, but introduced in some cases, and reinforced in others, vital elements of the cultural attributes of the Southern world. Phoenician inscriptions have been found as far north as central Turkey and at least as far west as Tunisia, where the famous ancient city of Carthage was founded.</p> <p>The Arabian peninsula, first inhabited more than 8,000 years ago, was early populated by Blacks. Once dominant over the entire peninsula, the African presence in early Arabia is most clearly traceable through the Sabeans. The Sabeans were the first Arabians to step firmly within the realm of civilization. The southwestern corner of the peninsula was their early home. This area, which was known to the Romans as Arabia Felix, embraces the country that is today called Yemen. In antiquity this region gave rise to a high degree of civilization because of the fertility of the soil, the growth of frankincense and myrrh, and the close proximity to the sea and consequently its importance in the trade routes. The Sabeans have even been called "the Phoenicians of the southern seas."</p> <p>On of the earliest known Sabean construction project was probably the Marib Dam (possibly South Arabia's most enduring technical achievement). Serving the South Arabians for more than a thousand years, the Marib Dam is traditionally believed to have been conceived by Lokman, the sage and multi-genius of pre-Islamic South Arabia. In effect, the Dam was an earthen ridge stretching slightly more than 1700 feet across a prominent wadi. Both sides sloped sharply upward, with the Dam's upstream side fortified by small pebbles established in mortar. The Marib Dam was rebuilt several times by piling more earth and stone onto the existing structure. The last recorded height of the Marib Dam was slightly more than forty-five feet.</p> <p>Before the advent of Islam southern Arabia already possessed the sacred Kaaba sanctuary, with its black stone, at Makkah. Diop claimed that "The Kaaba was reputed to have been constructed by Ishmael, son of Abraham and Hagar the Egyptian (a Negro woman), historical ancestor of Mohammed, according to all Arab historians." "In Egypt he [Abraham] had married a Negro woman, Hagar, mother of Ishmael, the Biblical ancestor of the second Semitic branch, the Arabs. Ishmael was said to be the historical ancestor of Mohammed."</p> <p>The city of Makkah was considered a holy place and the destination of pilgrims long before the prophet Muhammad. Muhammad himself, who was to unite the whole of Arabia, appears to have had a prominent African lineage. According to al-Jahiz, the guardian of the sacred Kaaba--Abd al-Muttalib, "fathered ten Lords, Black as the night and magnificent." One of these men was Abdallah, the father of Muhammad. According to tradition, the first Muslim killed in battle was Mihdja--a Black man. Another Black man, Bilal, was such a pivotal figure in the development of Islam that he has been referred to as "a third of the faith." Many of the earliest Muslim converts were Africans, and a number of the Muslim faithful sought refuge in Ethiopia because of Arabian hostility to Muhammad's teachings.</p> <p><strong>Southern Asia</strong></p> <p>The ancient riverine civilization of the Indus Valley (named after one of its largest and most studied sites--Harappa) actually had extensions reaching from the river Oxus in Afghanistan in the north to the Gulf of Gambay in India in the south. The Harappan civilization flourished from about 2200 B.C.E. to approximately 1700 B.C.E. At its height, the Harappans engaged in regular commercial relations with Iraq and Iran. This much we know with certainty. We are equally certain that the founders of the Harappan civilization were Black. This is verifiable through the available physical evidence--skeletal remains, eye-witness accounts preserved in the Rig Veda, artistic and sculptural remains, the regional survival of Dravidian languages (including Brahui, Kurukh, and Malto) and the essential role of these languages which are now being used in the decipherment of the Harappan script. We should also take into account the prominence accorded the mother goddess in the Harappan cities and the sedentary nature of the Harappan people themselves. Walter Fairservis claims that the "Harappans cultivated cotton and perhaps rice, domesticated the chicken and may have invented the game of chess and one of the two of the great early sources of nonmuscle power: the windmill."</p> <p>Exceptionally valuable writings expressing intimate connections between early India, Egypt and Ethiopia have existed for more than two thousand years. In the first century B.C.E., for example, the famous Greek historian Diodorus Siculus penned that, "From Ethiopia he (Osiris) passed through Arabia, bordering upon the Red Sea as far as to India....He built many cities in India, one of which he called Nysa, willing to have remembrance of that (Nysa) in Egypt where he was brought up." Apollonius of Tyana, who is said to have visited India near the end of the first century C.E., was convinced that "The Ethiopians are colonists sent from India, who follow their forefathers in matters of wisdom." The Itinerarium Alexandri, a Latin work written about 345 C.E. for the Roman emperor Constantius, says that, "India, taken as a whole, beginning from the north and embracing what of it is subject to Persia, is a continuation of Egypt and the Ethiopians."</p> <p>The epic story of the African presence in Asia is one of the most exciting and, yet, least known aspects of the Black experience. It spans a period of more than 100,000 years and encompasses the largest single land mass on earth. Although many are startled by the notion, it is absolutely undeniable, that: as the first hominids and modern humans; as simple hunter-gatherers and primitive agriculturists; as heroic warriors and premier civilizers; as sages and priests, poets and prophets, kings and queens; as deities and demons of misty legends and shadowy myths; and yes, even as servants and slaves, the Black race has known Asia intimately from the very beginning. Even today, after an entire series of holocausts and calamities, the numbers of Blacks in Asia approach two-hundred million. The Black populations of Asia, what they have done and are now doing, are questions that beg and demand serious answers. These answers, which we must diligently seek to supply, cannot be sought merely to satisfy the intellectual curiosity of an elite group, but to further the vision of Pan-Africanism and reunite a family that has been separated far too long.</p> <h3 align="center"><img src="http://blackherbals.com/bd14538_.gif" border="0" height="10" width="35%" /><img src="http://blackherbals.com/bd14538_.gif" border="0" height="10" width="35%" /></h3> <strong></strong>Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-76537064735600008042007-06-01T21:13:00.000-04:002007-06-04T00:10:35.858-04:00African Roots of Humanity- Part I<h3 align="center"><b><i><span style="COLOR: rgb(0,128,0);font-family:Lucida Handwriting;font-size:7;" >B</span><span style="COLOR: rgb(0,128,0);font-family:Lucida Handwriting;font-size:180%;" >LACKHERBALS.COM</span></i></b></h3><h3 align="center"><img height="10" src="http://www.blackherbals.com/bd14538_.gif" width="35%" border="0" /><img height="10" src="http://www.blackherbals.com/bd14538_.gif" width="35%" border="0" /></h3><h3 align="center"><strong><big><span style="font-size:6;">THE AFRICAN ROOTS OF HUMANITY AND CIVILIZATION</span></big></strong></h3><p align="center"><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">RUNOKO RASHIDI</span></strong></p><p align="center"><strong><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://blackherbals.com/african_roots">http://blackherbals.com/african_roots</a></span></strong></p><p align="center"><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">_of_</span></strong><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">humanity_and_ci.htm<br /></p></span></strong><p align="left"><strong>INTRODUCTION</strong></p><p><big><strong>I</strong></big>t has been said that "history is a light that illuminates the past and a key that unlocks the door to the future." This paper is designed to help reconnect and refocus the history and present conditions of the Global African Community from the periphery of our imaginations to the center of our attention, and is devoted to the review of what has been referred to as "That Other African." This is not the stereotypical African savage, but the African that first peopled the earth, and gave birth to or significantly influenced the world's oldest and most magnificent civilizations. This is the African that first entered Asia, Europe, Australia, the South Pacific, and the early Americas not as slave, but as master. We now know, based on recent scientific studies of DNA, that modern humanity originated in Africa, that Black people are the world's original people, and that all modern humans can ultimately trace their ancestral roots back to Africa. If not for the primordial migrations of early African people, humanity would have remained physically Africoid, and the rest of the world outside of the African continent absent of human life.</p><p>Our concern is not only with Africa as the cradle of human culture, but as the birthplace and the cradle of humanity itself. For a long time the cradle of humanity was "placed" in Asia. This was apparently done for at least two basic reasons: the ancient presence in Asia of all three major human ethnic types (Black, White, and Yellow); and the discovery of Homo erectus in Asia at a time when Africa had not yet become a significant target for palaeontological excavations.</p><p>Homo erectus, whose origins have been traced back to about 1.6 million years before present, was the first hominid to leave Africa. More than 500,000 years ago, having domesticated fire and possessing rudimentary methods of transporting food and water, Homo erectus, with physical characteristics distinctly marked by dark complexion and tightly curled hair, was ready to embark upon his Asia trek. Both the well known "Peking Man" and "Java Man" fossils are only regional variations of early, Africoid Homo erectus populations. The arrival of Homo erectus from Africa into Europe has been estimated at about 400,000 years ago.</p><p>In addition to Homo erectus, the Great Lakes region of East-Central Africa also produced the first modern human populations (Homo sapiens sapiens). New researches and discoveries in the relevant scientific fields confirm this. In 1986, for example, after a meticulous analysis of mitochondrial DNA, an elite group of scientists led by Oxford University's James S. Wainscoat, recorded the following statement: "The earliest fossils of anatomically modern man (Homo sapiens sapiens) have been found in Africa at Omo in Ethiopia, Border Cave [Ingwavuma] in South Africa and at Klasies River Mouth in South Africa. The data from the last site suggests that Homo sapiens sapiens was present in South Africa more than 100,000 years ago, and an adult mandible from Border Cave has been dated to about 90,000 years before present. Hence, it has been argued that the evolution of modern man took place in Africa. Our data are consistent with such a scheme, in which a founder population migrated from Africa and subsequently gave rise to all non-African populations."</p><p>In 1987, less than a year after the initial publication of their findings, Wainscoat was even more convinced of their validity. In a more specific report,Wainscoat noted that, "It seems likely that modern man emerged in Africa and...that subsequently a founder population left Africa and spread throughout Europe, Asia and the Americas."</p><p>Douglas Wallace, another scientist actively engaged in DNA research, adds that, "The scientist's Eve--subject of one of the most provocative theories in a decade--was more likely a dark-haired, black-skinned woman, roaming a hot savanna in search of food." According to Diop: "The man born in Africa was necessarily dark-skinned due to the considerable force of ultraviolet radiation in the equatorial belt. As he moved toward the more temperate climates, this man gradually lost his pigmentation by process of selection and adaptation."</p><p>Throughout the 1990s DNA research has continued and has given added weight to the African origins of humanity. As the direct result of migrations then, African people came to populate the rest of the world. There were different routes with varying degrees of difficulty that the migrants could have taken as they left the Great Lakes region. These routes include the Nile Valley, the Suez Isthmus into Asia, and the Straits of Gibraltar into Europe. It is in the light of these routes that the presence of modern humans in Asia, Europe, and, ultimately the Americas, can be traced.</p><h3 align="center"><img height="10" src="http://www.blackherbals.com/bd14538_.gif" width="35%" border="0" /><img height="10" src="http://www.blackherbals.com/bd14538_.gif" width="35%" border="0" /></h3><h3 align="center"><strong><span style="font-size:180%;">GREAT AFRICAN CIVILIZATIONS: HISTORY, CULTURE & HERITAGE</span></strong></h3><p>Although it was Africa's Upper Nile Valley--the highly regarded Ethiopia ("land of the burnt-faced people"), that gave birth to the world's oldest monarchy of which we are informed (Ta-Seti), it is in pharaonic Egypt (ancient Kmt), the greatest nation of antiquity and Ethiopia's most celebrated offspring, that the tremendous volume of historical inquiry has been made. The world is enthralled by Kmt. And why should it be otherwise? When we examine Kemetic civilization we examine perhaps the proudest and loftiest accomplishments in the whole of human annals. Her list of achievements is extremely long and strikingly notable. Ancient Kmt has been, and probably will continue to be, the primary focus of our studies for some time to come.</p><p>These studies are demonstrating with rapidity and increasing precision that not only were Kmt's origins African, but that through the mass of her dynastic period (3250 to 341 B.C.E.), African people endowed with dark complexions, full lips, broad noses, and tightly-curled hair were dominant in both the general population and the reigning elite.</p><p><strong>Modern Pharaohs of Nile Valley Studies</strong></p><p>Of the recent towering figures in the struggle to completely eradicate the pervasive racial myths clinging to the origins of Kmt, two men in particular stand out. Cheikh Anta Diop, born in Diourbel, Senegal on December 29, 1923, was the founder and Director of the Radiocarbon Laboratory of the Fundamental Institute of Black Africa (IFAN) at the University of Dakar. Diop was a multi-disciplinary scholar who helped introduce an uncompromising and eminently systematic approach towards the study of Africa and the numerous civilizations that she has produced and influenced. Included among the effective range of methodologies utilized in his researches were: the study of human images; analyzes of the epidermis of royal Kemetic mummies for verification of their melanin content; osteological measurements and physical anthropology; comparison studies of Upper Egyptian and modern West African blood-groups; comparison studies demonstrating linguistic affinities and phonetic correspondences between Kemetic and West African languages; documentation of the divine epithets and ethnic designations employed by the Kamites themselves; investigations of Biblical testimonies pertaining to Kemetic race and culture; and investigations of early Greek and Roman eye-witness accounts concerning Kemetic ethnicity. Diop died on February 7, 1986.</p><p>Chancellor Williams, born December 22, 1898 in Bennetsville, South Carolina, is probably best known as the author of the 1971 publication, The Destruction of Black Civilization: Great Issues of a Race from 4500 B.C. to 2000 A.D. Uncompromising, broadly sweeping its range, and immensely powerful in its scope, there has probably been no other single book focusing on antiquity, particularly the Nile Valley, that has so profoundly affected the consciousness of the present generation of African-Americans. Williams began direct field studies in African history in 1956. The final field studies, which covered 26 countries and 105 language groups, were finished in 1964. Williams is a retired professor of African History at Howard University.</p><p><strong>The Royal Dynasties of Kmt</strong></p><p>While Narmer (ca. 3250 B.C.E.) is regarded as Kmt's first monarch, he may have seen himself as the culmination of a historical epoch, rather than the beginning. Narmer was the heir to at least a millennium of African brilliance, and assumed charge of an already advanced and highly-evolved society. The Old Kingdom (2260-2180 B.C.E.), comprising Dynasties III through VI, witnessed a real flowering of Kemetic culture. It produced such personalities as: Zoser, Imhotep, Nae-maet Sneferu, Khufu, Khafre, Menkaure, Hesyre, Ptah-hotep, and Neferkare Pepi II--whose 94 years on the throne remains the longest single reign in world history.</p><p>The Old Kingdom was also the famous epoch of pyramid building. The great pyramids are arguably the world's most enduring expressions of architectural prowess. The invading Arabs of post-pharaonic Egypt were so awed by the pyramids that they coined the expression: "Men fear time, but time fears the pyramids." Jean Francois Champollion, regarded by many as the chief figure in the decipherment of Kemetic hieroglyphs, remarked that "the Egyptians built like men a hundred feet tall."</p><p>Ancient Kmt's Middle Kingdom, the significant period in Kemetic history encompassing Dynasties XI (ca. 2130-1991 B.C.E.) and XII (1991-1786 B.C.E.), was one of the most remarkable epochs in the long history of the African people. Kmt's Middle Kingdom was founded by nobles from Southern Kmt--the Mentuhoteps and Intefs--a distinguished and aggressive family of African nobles from Waset, the then little-known city in Kmt's Scepter nome that the Greeks were to call Thebes.</p><p>With Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II's assumption of the Upper Kemetic throne around 2060 B.C.E. began another sustained, and ultimately successful, drive for the reunification of all Kmt. Like the Old Kingdom before it, the Middle Kingdom is especially noteworthy for its tremendous engineering and architectural achievements. Nymare Amenemhet III (1843-1797 B.C.E.), for example, raised two major pyramids--at Dahshur and Hawara. The Hawara pyramid possessed a sepulchral chamber of yellow quartzite--22 feet long, eight feet wide and six feet high. The total weight of the chamber was 110 tons. The roof of the chamber itself was composed of three massive pieces of yellow quartzite--with a combined weight of 45 tons.</p><p>Around Lake Moeris in the Faiyum Oasis of Middle Kmt was constructed a vast embankment 27 miles long that secured more than 27,000 acres of fertile land for cultivation. At the Nile's entrance to the Lake was established a great dam, which regulated the mighty river's flow, and thus minimized the risks of a poor harvest. Amenemhet's officials at the Kemetic fortress of Semneh, located at the second cataract, recorded the height of the Nile on the rocks there.</p><p>North of Lake Moeris were placed stone platforms filled with earth. Atop these were added two huge pedestals, each of which held a colossi of the king, 39 feet high. Carved from quartzite and polished until they shone brilliantly, they glittered across Lake Moeris. Fragments of these statues can still be seen in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford.</p><p>On the south side of the Lake stood the Labyrinth. The Labyrinth may have been the largest single building in world history. The Labyrinth contained 3000 rooms, 1500 below the ground and 1500 above. The building itself was 800 by 1000 feet. Herodotus (ca. 450 B.C.E.) said that it surpassed the pyramids, and noted that, "It is beyond my ability to describe. It must have cost more in labor and money than all of the walls and public works of the Greeks put together."</p><p>W. M. Flinders Petrie (1853-1942), who excavated the site in 1888, provided additional information on this building of buildings:</p><blockquote><p>"The mere figures will not signify readily to the mind the vast extent of construction; but when we compare it with the greatest of the other Egyptian temples it could be somewhat realized. On that space could be erected the great hall of Karnak, and all the successive temples adjoining it, and the great court and pylons of it; and also the temple of Mut, and also the two great temples of Luxor; and still there would be room for the whole of the Ramesseum. In short, all the temples on the east bank of Thebes, and one of the largest on the west bank, might be placed together in the one area....Here we certainly have a site worthy of the renown which the Labyrinth acquired."</p></blockquote><p>William Leo Hansberry considered Dynasty XVIII "one of the greatest, if not the greatest, royal family to ever sit on any throne anywhere at any time." Kmt's Dynasty XVIII began about 1580 B.C.E. Under the leadership of Nebpehtyre Ahmose I and his highly venerated wife and queen, Ahmose-Nefertari, the African armies grew strong enough to eject the despised Hyksos ("shepherd kings")--Kmt's first foreign invaders. After having experienced an 150 year period of foreign occupation, the Kamites vowed "never again" and quickly proceeded to conquer the whole of Western Asia. The spoils of war that flowed into her treasuries catapulted Kmt into position as the world's leading superpower. In addition to Ahmose I and Ahmose-Nefertari, Dynasty XVIII is the period of such notables as: Djeserkare Amenhotep I, Akheperkare Thutmose I, Makare Hatshepsut, Senemut, Menkheperre Thutmose III, Nebmare Amenhotep III, Queen Tiye, Akhenaten and Nebkheprure Tutankamen.</p><p>Cheikh Anta Diop believed that "The highest point of Egyptian history was the Nineteenth Dynasty of Ramses II." The Nineteenth Dynasty was indeed an extraordinarily pivotal phase in African history. Akhenaten's determined efforts towards a social-religious revolution several decades earlier had effectively polarized the Kemetic state. A tremendous power struggle ensued with the monarchy on one side, and the priesthood on the other. The result of this conflict of interest was a prolonged period of political instability. Many precincts within the vast regions conquered during the military campaigns of the Dynasty XVIII warrior-kings had been lost. The nation's military readiness and national prestige had sharply declined, a situation that the enemies of Kmt observed with keen interest and growing anticipation. These hostile forces, including numerous Semitic and Indo-European speaking elements, rose in defiance of their African overlords, and instituted a series of steady attacks that threatened Kmt's very existence.</p><p>The sixty-seven year reign of Ramses II was for Kmt an era of general prosperity, stable government and extensive building projects. Ancient gods like Ptah, Ra and Set were elevated to high status. The worship of Amen was restored and his priests reinstated. Major wars were fought with the Libyans, Hittites and their allies. Wondrous new temples from Nubia to the Kemetic Delta were carved out of the naked cliffs. Splendid tombs in the hills of western Waset and Aabdju were constructed, renovated and beautified. The new Kemetic city of Pi-Ramses made its impressive debut.</p><p>Ramses was actually deified in his own lifetime, and through the unrelenting projection of his own incomparable personality, he made the name Ramses synonymous with kingship for centuries. Ramses II was truly great. He was the towering figure of his age, and established the models and set the standards that others used to rule by. In regards to the ethnicity of Ramses, Diop expressed in unmistakable language that:</p><blockquote><p>"Ramses II was not leucoderm and could have been even less red-haired, because he reigned over a people who instantly massacred red-haired people as soon as they met them, even in the street; these people were considered as strange beings, unhealthy, bearers of bad luck and unfit for life....Ramses II is black. Let's let him sleep in his black skin, for eternity."</p></blockquote><p>Ramses initiated enormous building activities in Nubia. He commissioned temples at Beit-el-Wali, Gerf Hussein, Wadi-es-Sebua, Derr, Abu Simbel and Aksha in Ta-Seti (Lower Nubia), and at Amara and Barkal in Upper Nubia. The temple of Abu Simbel, one of the largest rock-cut structures in the world, is no doubt a unique piece of architectural work. It is hewn into a mountain of sandstone rock on the left bank of the Nile that was held sacred long before the great Ramses' temple was cut there. It was dedicated to Ra-Harakhte, the god of the rising sun, who is represented as a man with the head of a falcon wearing the solar disc. It is a masterpiece of architectural design and engineering. The whole purpose and position of the temple was devoted to the adoration of the sun at dawn, and it was only at sunrise at certain times of the year that the vast interior was illuminated, when the light penetrated the sanctuary. It must have been for the faithful an unforgettable experience to stand in the main hall at dawn, and watch the life-giving rays of the sun gradually penetrate into the majestic inner sanctuary of an ancient religion.</p><p>Having lived vigorously for more than nine decades, Ramses II died in the second month of his 67th regnal year. In actuality however, there was no death in the African way of thinking; only gradual decay and periodic renewal. Kmt was perhaps the earliest nation to clearly articulate the purely African notions of resurrection and immortality. As one writer succinctly stated, within the context of Kmt, "If Osiris, the Nile, and all vegetation, might rise again, so might man." Man could rise, but only if he made God's words, which were truth, justice and righteousness, manifest on earth. This was fundamental to the African psyche.</p><p>Although Kmt declined in prominence following the end of the New Kingdom, the Africans of the ancestral south, Kush, remained strong and made a final stand during against foreign invasions during Dynasty XXV (750-656 B.C.E.). The rulers of Dynasty XXV--Piankhi, Shabaka, Shabataka, Taharqa and Tanutamon--sparked a powerful movement of cultural revival and national resurgence in Kmt. But the entire history of the dynasty was a supreme effort to form a united front against foreign invaders. For nearly one hundred and fifty years the strong African forces held their own, but in 661 B.C.E. the Assyrian army attacked Kmt and pillaged the city of Waset. According to Diop, "The fall of the most venerated city of all antiquity aroused deep emotion in the world of that time and marked the end of the Nubian Sudanese or Twenty-Fifth Ethiopian Dynasty. That date also marked the decline of Black political supremacy in antiquity and history."</p><p>The challenge to the African global community to rise up and aggressively reclaim its heritage of great civilizations must be seen as an integral part of the Pan-African liberation movement. Kmt was the heart and soul of Africa, and we only need glance at her regal splendors to measure our true descent from power. We must see in Kmt the knowledge that what African people did, African people can do. In this manner, the immortal accomplishments of our illustrious ancestors are resurrected, and the distant past not only merges with the present, but outlines the possibilities of the future.</p><h3 align="center"><img height="10" src="http://www.blackherbals.com/bd14538_.gif" width="35%" border="0" /></h3>Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-58239740924031024292007-06-01T21:12:00.000-04:002007-06-04T00:42:40.816-04:00Afrocentrism- Pro and ConThere is bitter dispute between the proponents of Afrocentrism and Eurocentrism. The first portion of this post deals with the rebuttal of Afrocentrism. The second part concerns Afrocentrism<br /><br />History is written by the victors - and conquerors. It is a fact that many white scholars and archaeologists slanted their theories, findings and interpretations to favor white superiority/black inferiority. In some cases, destruction of African evidence of their civilization was done, and in some cases outright fraud and deception was performed.<br /><br />Most Eurocentrics assert that black Africa had no great civilizations and contributed nothing to the advancement of the human race. Extremist advocates of Afrocentrism assert that virtually all advances in civilization were due to the black Africans who migrated about the globe.<br /><br />Human brains and creativity is the same among all races. The truth of human histories of all people probably lies somewhere in between these two arguments. / Aggrieved Historian<br />>>>>>>>>>>>>><br /><a href="http://skepdic.com/afrocent.html">http://skepdic.com/afrocent.html</a><br /><br /><table cellpadding="6" width="673" border="0"><tbody><tr><td valign="top" width="524"><h2><span style="font-family:Arial;">Afrocentrism</span></h2><blockquote><p><b><span style="COLOR: rgb(128,0,0);font-family:Arial;" >Afrocentrism is a mythology that is racist, reactionary, and essentially therapeutic. It suggests that nothing important has happened in black history since the time of the pharaohs and thus trivializes the history of black Americans. Afrocentrism places an emphasis on Egypt that is, to put it bluntly, absurd. --Clarence E. Walker<a href="http://dcn.davis.ca.us/~gizmo/2001/clarence.html">*</a></span></b></p></blockquote><p><span style="font-family:Arial;">Afrocentrism is a <a href="http://skepdic.com/pseudohs.html">pseudohistorical </a>political movement that erroneously claims that African-Americans should trace their roots back to ancient <a href="http://www.geocities.com/enbp/">Egypt</a> because it was dominated by a race of black Africans. Some of Afrocentrism's other claims are: the ancient Greeks stole their main cultural achievements from black Egyptians; Jesus, Socrates and Cleopatra, among others, were black; and Jews created the slave trade of black Africans. </span></p><p><span style="font-family:Arial;">The main purpose of Afrocentrism is to encourage black nationalism and ethnic pride as a psychological weapon against the destructive and debilitating effects of universal racism. </span></p><p><span style="font-family:Arial;">Some of Afrocentrism's leading proponents are <a href="http://www.asante.net/articles/Liverpool-Address.html">Professor Molefi Kete Asante</a> of Temple University; Professor Leonard Jeffries of City University of New York; and Martin Bernal, author of <i>Black Athena</i>. </span></p><p><span style="font-family:Arial;">One of the more important Afrocentric texts is the pseudo-historical <i>Stolen Legacy</i> (1954) by George G. M. James. Mr. James claims, among other things, that Greek philosophy and the mystery religions of Greece and Rome were stolen from Egypt; that the ancient Greeks did not have the native ability to develop philosophy; and that the Egyptians from whom the Greeks stole their philosophy were black Africans. Many of James' ideas were taken from Marcus Garvey (1887-1940), who thought that white accomplishment is due to teaching children they are superior. If blacks are to succeed, he said, they would have to teach their children that they are superior. </span></p><p><span style="font-family:Arial;">James's principal sources were Masonic, especially <i>The Ancient Mysteries and Modern Masonry</i> (1909) by the Rev. Charles H. Vail. The Masons in turn derived their misconceptions about Egyptian mystery and initiation rites from the eighteenth century work of fiction<i> Sethos, a History or Biography, based on Unpublished Memoirs of Ancient Egypt</i> (1731) by the Abbé Jean Terrasson (1670-1750), a professor of Greek. Terrasson had no access to Egyptian sources and he would be long dead before Egyptian hieroglyphics could be deciphered. But Terrasson knew the Greek and Latin writers well. So he constructed an imaginary Egyptian religion based upon sources which described Greek and Latin rites as if they were Egyptian (Lefkowitz). Hence, one of the main sources for Afrocentric Egyptology turns out to be Greece and Rome. The Greeks would have called this <i>irony. </i>I don't know what Afrocentrists call it. </span></p><p><span style="font-family:Arial;">James's pseudo-history is the basis for other Afrocentric pseudo-histories such as <i>Africa, Mother of Western Civilization</i> by Yosef A.A. ben-Jochannnan, one of James's students, and <i>Civilization or Barbarism</i> by Cheikh Anta Diop of Senegal. </span></p><p><span style="font-family:Arial;">Afrocentrism is being taught in many universities, colleges, and public schools.<a href="http://www.csicop.org/si/9111/minority.html">* </a></span></p><hr align="left" width="25%"><br /><p><span style="font-family:Arial;"><b>further reading</b> </span></p><p><span style="font-family:Arial;"><b><a href="http://skepdic.com/comments/afrocom.html">reader comments</a></b> </span></p><ul><li><span style="font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://www.taemag.com/issues/articleid.16887/article_detail.asp">Pride and prejudice</a> by Dinesh D'Souza</span></li><li><span style="font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Articles_Gen/afrocent_roth.html">Building Bridges to Afrocentrism</a> by Egyptologist Ann Macy Roth</span></li><li><span style="font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://way.net/dissonance/sundiata.html">AFROCENTRISM The Argument We're Really Having © 1996 by Ibrahim Sundiata</a></span></li><li><span style="font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://www.geocities.com/enbp/">The Ancient Egypt "Race" Issue</a></span></li></ul><p><span style="font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ISBN=0807845558/roberttoddcarrolA/">Lefkowitz, Mary (Editor) and Guy MacLean Rogers (Editor) <i>Black Athena Revisited</i> (University of North Carolina Press, 1996)</a></span></p><p><span style="font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ISBN=046509838X/roberttoddcarrolA/">Lefkowitz, Mary. <i>Not Out of Africa - How Afrocentrism Became an Excuse to Teach Myth as History</i> (New York: Basic Books, 1996).</a> Reviewed in <a href="http://skepdic.com/refuge/lefko.html">The Skeptic's Refuge</a> </span></p><p><span style="font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ISBN=0875862225/roberttoddcarrolA/">Najovits, Simson. (2003). <i>Egypt, Trunk of the Tree, Vol. 1: The Contexts </i></a>and <i><a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ISBN=087586256X/roberttoddcarrolA/">Vol. II: The Consequences</a></i>. Algora Publishing.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ISBN=0195095715/roberttoddcarrolA/">Walker, Clarence E. <i>We Can't Go Home Again: An Argument about Afrocentrism </i>(Oxford University Press, 2001 </a></span></p></td></tr><tr><td valign="bottom" width="149" colspan="2"><span style="COLOR: rgb(128,0,0)"><strong><small>©copyright 2007</small><br /></strong></span><span style="COLOR: rgb(128,0,0)"><b>Robert Todd Carroll</b></span> <p><a href="http://skepdic.com/adhoc.html"><img height="26" alt="larrow.gif (1051 bytes)" src="http://skepdic.com/graphics/larrow.gif" width="14" align="bottom" border="0" /><small><small><span style="font-family:Arial;"><strong> ad hoc hypothesis</strong></span></small></small></a></p></td><td valign="top" align="right" width="524"><span style="COLOR: rgb(128,0,0);font-family:Arial;" ><strong><small><small><!--webbot bot="Timestamp" S-Type="EDITED" S-Format="%m/%d/%y" startspan --></small></small></strong></span></td></tr></tbody></table><br />>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>><br /><br />AFROCENTRISM<br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism</a><br /><div id="bodyContent"><div id="jump-to-nav"></div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 202px"><a class="internal" title="An 1812 map of Africa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Africamap1812.jpg"><img class="thumbimage" height="162" alt="An 1812 map of Africa" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Africamap1812.jpg/200px-Africamap1812.jpg" width="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Africamap1812.jpg" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Africamap1812.jpg"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>An 1812 map of Africa</div></div></div><p><b>Afrocentrism</b> is an <a title="Academic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic">academic</a>, <a title="Philosophy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy">philosophical</a>, and <a title="History" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History">historical</a> approach to the study of world history. Afrocentrism holds that <a title="Eurocentrism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocentrism">Eurocentrism</a> has led to the neglect or denial of the contributions of <a title="African people" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_people">African people</a> and focused instead on a <i>generally</i> <a title="Europe" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe">European</a>-centered model of world civilization and <a title="History" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History">history</a>. Therefore, Afrocentrism aims to shift the focus from a perceived European-centered history to an <a title="African" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African">African</a>-centered history. More broadly, Afrocentrism is concerned with distinguishing the influence of <a title="European" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European">European</a> and <a title="Oriental" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental">Oriental</a> peoples from African achievements.</p><p>Afrocentrism also has connections to <a title="Black people" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_people">Black</a> <a title="Civil rights movements" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_rights_movements">civil rights movements</a> and <a title="Anti-imperialist" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-imperialist">anti-imperialist</a> ideologies in the United States and the <a title="Caribbean" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean">Caribbean</a>.</p><p>Afrocentrists typically focus on indigenous African and African contributions and posit black, <a title="Nile Valley" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile_Valley">Nilotic</a> origins for <a title="Western civilization" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_civilization">Western civilization</a>. Philosophically, Afrocentrism is often compared to Eurocentrism; however, the validity of this comparison is heavily debated.</p><p>Afrocentricity is the theory that African ethnicity must be viewed within the context of their own culture.</p><p><br /></p><table class="infobox" style="TEXT-ALIGN: center;font-size:95%;" ><tbody><tr><td><div class="center"><div class="floatnone"><span style="font-size:0;"><a class="image" title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:LocationAfrica.png"><img height="51" alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/LocationAfrica.png/100px-LocationAfrica.png" width="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationAfrica.png" /></a></span></div></div></td></tr><tr><th style="BACKGROUND: rgb(102,204,255) 0% 50%; moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial"><a title="Pan-Africanism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Africanism">Pan-African</a> topics</th></tr><tr><th style="BACKGROUND: rgb(221,221,255) 0% 50%; moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial"><br /></th></tr><tr><td><br /></td></tr><tr><td><br /></td></tr><tr><td><br /></td></tr><tr><td><br /></td></tr><tr><td><br /></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><th style="BACKGROUND: rgb(221,221,255) 0% 50%; moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial">Academics</th></tr><tr><td><a title="African philosophy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_philosophy">African philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><td><a title="Black nationalism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_nationalism">Black nationalism</a></td></tr><tr><td><a title="Black orientalism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_orientalism">Black orientalism</a></td></tr><tr><td><strong class="selflink">Afrocentrism</strong></td></tr><tr><th style="BACKGROUND: rgb(221,221,255) 0% 50%; moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial">Art</th></tr><tr><td><a title="FESPACO" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FESPACO">FESPACO</a></td></tr><tr><td><a title="African Art" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Art">African Art</a></td></tr><tr><td><a title="PAFF" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PAFF">PAFF</a></td></tr><tr><th style="BACKGROUND: rgb(221,221,255) 0% 50%; moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial"><br /></th></tr><tr><td><a title="Kwame Nkrumah" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah"><br /></a></td></tr><tr><td><a title="Marcus Garvey" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Garvey"><br /></a></td></tr><tr><td><a title="Malcolm X" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_X"><br /></a></td></tr><tr><td><a title="W.E.B. Du Bois" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois"><br /></a></td></tr><tr><td><a title="Haile Selassie" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haile_Selassie"><br /></a></td></tr><tr><td><a title="Cheikh Anta Diop" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheikh_Anta_Diop"><br /></a></td></tr><tr><td><a title="Muammar al-Gaddafi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muammar_al-Gaddafi"><br /></a></td></tr><tr><td><br /></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td><hr /><br /><center><div class="noprint plainlinksneverexpand" style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0pt; PADDING-LEFT: 0pt; FONT-WEIGHT: normal; FONT-SIZE: xx-small; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0pt; COLOR: rgb(0,0,0); PADDING-TOP: 0pt; WHITE-SPACE: nowrap; BACKGROUND-COLOR: transparent"><br /></div></center></td></tr></tbody></table><table class="toc" id="toc" summary="Contents"><tbody><tr><td><div id="toctitle"><h2>Contents</h2><span class="toctoggle"></span></div><ul><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#History_of_Afrocentrism"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History of Afrocentrism</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#The_debate_over_Afrocentrism"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">The debate over Afrocentrism</span></a> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#Race_and_Afrocentrism_argument"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Race and Afrocentrism argument</span></a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#Definitions_of_Pan-African_Black_identity"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Definitions of Pan-African Black identity</span></a> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#Criticism_of_the_race_theory"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Criticism of the race theory</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#Genetics_and_race_theory"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Genetics and race theory</span></a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#Afrocentrism_and_the_academy"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Afrocentrism and the academy</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#Egypt_and_the_argument_of_African_cultural_unity"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Egypt and the argument of African cultural unity</span></a> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#Egypt.27s_Sphere_of_influence_Debate"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Egypt's Sphere of influence Debate</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#Criticism_of_Afrocentrism"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Criticism of Afrocentrism</span></a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#General_Criticism"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">General Criticism</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#List_of_prominent_Afrocentric_authors"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">List of prominent Afrocentric authors</span></a></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table><script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><br /><p><a id="History_of_Afrocentrism" name="History_of_Afrocentrism"></a></p><h2><span class="mw-headline">History of Afrocentrism</span></h2><div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 202px"><a class="internal" title="'A" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bois.jpg"><img class="thumbimage" height="314" alt="'A" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c0/Bois.jpg/200px-Bois.jpg" width="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bois.jpg" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bois.jpg"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>A 1911 copy of the <a title="NAACP" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAACP">NAACP</a> journal <i>The Crisis</i> depicting "Ra-Maat-Neb, one of the kings of the Upper Nile"</div></div></div><p>The origins of Afrocentrism can be found in the work of African-American and Caribbean intellectuals early in the <a title="Twentieth century" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twentieth_century">twentieth century</a>. Publications such as <i><a title="The Crisis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Crisis">The Crisis</a></i> and the <i>Journal of Negro History</i> sought to counter the prevailing view in the West that Sub-Saharan Africa had contributed nothing of value to human history that was not the result of incursions by Europeans and <a title="Arab" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab">Arabs</a>.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-0"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-0">[1]</a></sup> These journals claimed that Ancient Egyptian civilisation was founded by Negroids and investigated the history of Africa. Editor of <i>The Crisis</i> <a title="W.E.B. DuBois" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.E.B._DuBois">W.E.B. DuBois</a> researched <a title="West Africa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa">West African</a> culture and attempted to construct a <a title="Pan-Africanism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Africanism">pan-Africanist</a> value system based on West African traditions. DuBois later envisioned and received funding from then <a title="Ghana" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana">Ghanaian</a> president <a title="Kwame Nkrumah" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah">Kwame Nkrumah</a> to produce an <i>Encyclopedia Africana</i> that would chronicle the history and cultures of Africa, but he died before the work could be completed. Some aspects of DuBois's approach are evident in the work of <a title="Cheikh Anta Diop" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheikh_Anta_Diop">Cheikh Anta Diop</a>, who claimed to have identified a pan-African <a title="Protolanguage" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protolanguage">protolanguage</a> and to have proven that ancient Egyptians were, indeed, Africans.</p><p>Diop also drew from the ideas of <a title="George James" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_James">George James</a>, a follower of <a title="Black nationalism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_nationalism">black nationalist</a> leader <a title="Marcus Garvey" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a>, who emphasized the importance of <a title="Ethiopia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> as a great, "black civilization", and who argued that Black peoples should develop pride in African history. James's book, <i>Stolen Legacy</i> (1954) is often cited as one of the foundational texts of Afrocentrism. James claimed that <a title="Greek philosophy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_philosophy">Greek philosophy</a> was "stolen" from ancient Egyptian traditions and that these had developed from distinctively "African" cultural roots. For James, the works of <a title="Aristotle" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and other Greek thinkers were, in fact, poor synopses of aspects of ancient Egyptian wisdom. According to James, the Greeks were a violent and quarrelsome people, unlike the Egyptians, and were not naturally capable of <a title="Philosophy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy">philosophy</a>. James famously claimed in his book that Aristotle had physically "stolen" his ideas and works from a "African" Library of Alexandria, when, in fact, the <a title="Library of Alexandria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a> was built by Greeks, during the Hellenistic period of Egypt, and well after Aristotle's death. African American activist <a title="Al Sharpton" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a> was quoted as saying at Kean College in 1994 that “White folks was in caves while we was building empires... We taught philosophy and astrology and mathematics before Socrates and them Greek homos ever got around to it.”<a class="external autonumber" title="http://www.frontpagemagazine.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=" href="http://www.frontpagemagazine.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=27826" rel="nofollow">[2]</a></p><p>These ideas were not wholly new. <a title="18th-century" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th-century">18th-century</a> <a title="Masonic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masonic">Masonic</a> texts referenced ancient writings that claimed Greek philosophers had studied in Egypt. The poet <a title="William Blake" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Blake">William Blake</a> had also attacked "<i>the stolen and perverted writings of <a title="Homer" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer">Homer</a> and <a title="Ovid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid">Ovid</a>, of <a title="Plato" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato">Plato</a> and <a title="Cicero" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero">Cicero</a></i>," asserting that they were copies of more ancient <a title="Semitic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitic">Semitic</a> texts. Such views were associated with <a title="Radicalism (historical)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)">radical</a> and <a title="Romanticism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism">Romantic</a> thought that rejected <a title="Classical antiquity" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity">classical</a> <a title="Greco-Roman" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Roman">Greco-Roman</a> culture as the model for civilization. James's distinct contribution was to tie these claims to an opposition between white European and African identity, associating these alleged ancient <a title="Appropriation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appropriation">appropriations</a> of black wisdom with white, <a title="Imperialism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialism">imperialist</a> exploitation of African peoples and the theft of artifacts from African cultures. By claiming that the Greeks were barbaric and innately incapable of philosophy, he inverted normative imperialist racial hierarchies, which made the same claims about Africans.</p><p>Other writers copied James's approach, which led to claims that Africans originated intellectual or technological achievements that later were claimed by whites. Today, most of these writings are not considered serious scholarship, and modern "Afrocentricity" writers have abandoned James's more extreme claims to concentrate on the notion that modern Black peoples should center their understanding of culture and history on Africa. <a title="Molefi Kete Asante" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molefi_Kete_Asante">Molefi Kete Asante</a>'s book <i>Afrocentricity</i> (1988) argues that African-Americans should look to African cultures "<i>as a critical corrective to a displaced agency among Africans</i>."</p><p>Other authors have adapted James's assertion that Egyptian culture's influence on the Greeks has been underestimated. Among such authors, the most influential is <a title="Martin Bernal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Bernal">Martin Bernal</a>, whose book <i><a title="Black Athena" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Athena">Black Athena</a></i> argued for the influence of Afro-Asiatic and Semitic civilizations on <a title="Classical Greece" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Greece">Classical Greece</a>. Other writers simply have focused on the study of indigenous African civilizations and peoples, with the aim of counteracting the emphasis placed on European and <a title="Arab" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab">Arab</a> influence on the continent. These Afrocentric scholars believe that historians must shift their attention away from European accomplishments and Europe-derived racist assumptions and, instead, emphasize the black origins of <a title="Mankind" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mankind">mankind</a> and black contributions to <a title="World history" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_history">world history</a>. They maintain that such a <a title="Paradigm shift" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigm_shift">paradigm shift</a> would result in significant attitudinal shifts in the <a title="Western world" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world">West</a> and elsewhere. Indeed, many claim that a dramatic shift already has occurred. As educational opportunities have broadened for peoples of color over the years, non-white scholars from many cultures increasingly have begun to examine anew the historical and <a title="Archaeology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology">archaeological</a> record. Some of their findings challenge the "Eurocentric" view of world history which for so many centuries was said to have devalued and appropriated, or simply ignored achievements by blacks and other non-Europeans.</p><p>Linguists have long studied the roots of the <a title="African American English Vernacular" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_English_Vernacular">African American English Vernacular</a>, or AAVE. Historically, the assumption was that the AAVE was the combined product of <a title="Southern United States" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_United_States">Southern</a> culture and poverty. This assumption implies not only that the AAEV was developed solely in the United States, but that it is a broken derivation of English, rather than a dialect with its own rules and structure. An Afrocentrist scholar would first ask to what degree AAEV shares common rules and words with <a title="West African" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_African">West African</a> languages — working on the assumption that enslaved Africans kept and transmitted West African cultural traits. Scholars might then ask how the AAEV itself transformed what we understand to be the southern dialect. AAEV is not simply broken English but rather a dialect that shares the same grammatical structure as many West African languages.</p><p><a id="The_debate_over_Afrocentrism" name="The_debate_over_Afrocentrism"></a></p><h2><span class="mw-headline">The debate over Afrocentrism</span></h2><p>Critics counter that much historical Afrocentric research simply lacks scientific merit and that it actually seeks to supplant and counter one form of <a title="Racism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism">racism</a> with another, rather than attempt to arrive at the truth. Among these critics, <a title="Mary Lefkowitz" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Lefkowitz">Mary Lefkowitz</a>'s <i>Not out of Africa</i> is regarded by some as the foremost critical work. In it, she contends Afrocentric historical claims are grounded in <a title="Identity politics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_politics">identity politics</a> and <a title="Mythology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythology">myth</a> rather than sound scholarship. Like most other mainstream scholars, she rejects James's views on the ground that his sources predate the decipherment of Egyptian <a title="Egyptian hieroglyphs" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a>. She contends that actual ancient Egyptian texts show little similarity to Greek philosophy. She also contends that Bernal underestimates the distinctiveness of Greek intellectual culture. Asante and others, however, dispute her conclusions<a class="new" title="Template:Fact=april 2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Fact%3Dapril_2007&action=edit">Template:Fact=april 2007</a>.</p><p><a id="Race_and_Afrocentrism_argument" name="Race_and_Afrocentrism_argument"></a></p><h3><span class="mw-headline">Race and Afrocentrism argument</span></h3><p>Afrocentrism contends that race still exists as a <a title="Social construct" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_construct">social</a> and political construct. It argues that racist Eurocentrist ideas about history were adopted for centuries. They claim that according to these ideas, Blacks had no civilization, no <a title="Written language" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written_language">written language</a>, no culture, and no history of any note before coming into contact with Europeans. Further, European history commonly receives more attention within the academy than the history of sub-Saharan African cultures or those of the many Pacific Island peoples. Afrocentrists contend it is important to divorce the historical record from past racism. Ironically, it has been contended by many that Afrocentrism itself is racist, as it simply focuses on Africa and often engages in dubious scholarship to support Africa being the cradle of civilization.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since April 2007" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></a></sup></p><p><a id="Definitions_of_Pan-African_Black_identity" name="Definitions_of_Pan-African_Black_identity"></a><span class="mw-headline">Definitions of Pan-African Black identity</span></p><div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 282px"><a class="internal" title="The indigenous Papuans of New Guinea have Australoid and Negroid physical characteristics and are considered black in some cultures despite being gentically closer to Southeast Asians than to Africans. " href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Village_people_in_Papua_New_Guinea.jpg"><img class="thumbimage" height="183" alt="The indigenous Papuans of New Guinea have Australoid and Negroid physical characteristics and are considered black in some cultures despite being gentically closer to Southeast Asians than to Africans. " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Village_people_in_Papua_New_Guinea.jpg/280px-Village_people_in_Papua_New_Guinea.jpg" width="280" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Village_people_in_Papua_New_Guinea.jpg" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Village_people_in_Papua_New_Guinea.jpg"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>The indigenous <a title="Papua" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua">Papuans</a> of New Guinea have <a title="Australoid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australoid">Australoid</a> and <a title="Negroid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negroid">Negroid</a> physical characteristics and are considered black in some cultures despite being gentically closer to <a title="Southeast Asia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia">Southeast Asians</a> than to <a title="Africa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa">Africans</a>. <sup class="reference" id="_ref-1"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-1">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="_ref-2"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-2">[3]</a></sup></div></div></div><p>The relationship among racial, cultural and continental identities is one of the more difficult problems in Afrocentic thought. In other instances, the concept of black racial identity has been used to include among "African" peoples populations generally thought of as non-Africans, such as the <a title="Australoid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australoid">Australoid</a> (sometimes called "<a title="Veddoid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veddoid">Veddoid</a>") peoples of Australia and New Guinea and the <a title="Dravidians" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidians">Dravidians</a> of India and the people of the rest of the <a title="Indian subcontinent" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. Also included by some writers in the <a title="African diaspora" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_diaspora">African diaspora</a> are the "<a title="Negrito" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negrito">Negritos</a>" of Southeast Asia (<a title="Thailand" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a title="Java (island)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(island)">Java</a>, <a title="Borneo" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borneo">Borneo</a>, <a title="Sumatra" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumatra">Sumatra</a> and <a title="Malaysia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, and <a title="Cambodia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia">Cambodia</a>); the "Africoid," aboriginal peoples of Melanesia, <a title="Micronesia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micronesia">Micronesia</a>, and <a title="Polynesia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesia">Polynesia</a>; some Afrocentrists also claim that the <a title="Olmecs" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmecs">Olmecs</a> of what is now <a title="Mexico" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico">Mexico</a> came from Africa, though this is not a widespread view among historians of Mesoamerica.<a class="external autonumber" title="http://www.geocities.com/CollegePark/Classroom/9912/blackasia.html" href="http://www.geocities.com/CollegePark/Classroom/9912/blackasia.html" rel="nofollow">[3]</a> Afrocentrics who adopt this approach contend that such peoples are African in a racial sense, just as the white inhabitants of modern Australia may be said to be European.</p><p><a id="Criticism_of_the_race_theory" name="Criticism_of_the_race_theory"></a></p><h3><span class="mw-headline">Criticism of the race theory</span></h3><p>Critics argue that such peoples were not recent <a title="Emigrants" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emigrants">emigrants</a> from Africa, and the entire population of the world might just as reasonably be considered part of an African race according to the <a title="Single-origin hypothesis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-origin_hypothesis">Out of Africa</a> model of <a title="Human migration" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_migration">human migration</a>. Studies show that some members of these darker-skinned <a title="Ethnic groups" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups">ethnic groups</a> and "<a title="Mongoloid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongoloid">Mongoloid</a>" <a title="East Asia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia">East Asians</a> are genetically closer to one another than they are to indigenous Africans. Afrocentrists argue that such genetic similarities are due to the fact that the aboriginal peoples of Asia were "Africoid" Negritos and Australoid types, who later <a title="Miscegenation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miscegenation">miscegenated</a> and developed in isolation with populations of the eventually more dominant Mongoloid phenotype over time. They contend these facts do not change the fundamental black racial identity of these peoples based on the traditional metrics of the classic "Negroid" phenotype, physical similarities with other peoples classified as Negroid, presumptive patterns of prehistoric migrations and, in some cases, what they contend are cultural similarities. Arguments advancing the notion of racial similarities between a Nubian and a Dravidian, both classified as Negroid, Afrocentrists contend, are far more credible than those of between, say, a <a title="Sweden" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden">Swede</a> and a modern-day <a title="Turkey" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey">Turk</a>, both classified as Caucasian. Traditional racial classifications, after all, are not based on genetics, but on phenotype. In such matters, Afrocentrists adopt the <a title="Pan-Africanism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Africanism">pan-Africanist</a> perspective that such people of color are all "African people" or "<a title="Diaspora" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaspora">diasporic</a> Africans." As Afrocentric scholar <a title="Runoko Rashidi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runoko_Rashidi">Runoko Rashidi</a> writes, they are all part of the "global African community." This view, however, disregards how most "<a title="Mongoloid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongoloid">Mongoloid</a>" <a title="East Asians" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asians">East Asians</a> identify themselves and the conclusions of geneticists about population relatedness.</p><p><a id="Genetics_and_race_theory" name="Genetics_and_race_theory"></a><span class="mw-headline">Genetics and race theory</span></p><div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 202px"><a class="internal" title="Human population structure can be inferred from multilocus DNA sequence data. In Rosenberg et al. (2002, 2005), individuals from 52 populations were examined at 993 DNA markers. These data was used to partitioned individuals into K = 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 clusters. In this figure, the average fractional membership of individuals from each population is represented by horizontal bars partitioned into K colored segments. 2 cluster analysis separated Africa and Eurasia from East Asia, Oceania, and America, 3 clusters separated Africa and Eurasia, 4 clusters separated America, 5 clusters separated Oceania (green), and 6 clusters subdivided native Americans." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Rosenberg_1048people_993markers.jpg"><img class="thumbimage" height="489" alt="Human population structure can be inferred from multilocus DNA sequence data. In Rosenberg et al. (2002, 2005), individuals from 52 populations were examined at 993 DNA markers. These data was used to partitioned individuals into K = 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 clusters. In this figure, the average fractional membership of individuals from each population is represented by horizontal bars partitioned into K colored segments. 2 cluster analysis separated Africa and Eurasia from East Asia, Oceania, and America, 3 clusters separated Africa and Eurasia, 4 clusters separated America, 5 clusters separated Oceania (green), and 6 clusters subdivided native Americans." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a1/Rosenberg_1048people_993markers.jpg/200px-Rosenberg_1048people_993markers.jpg" width="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rosenberg_1048people_993markers.jpg" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Rosenberg_1048people_993markers.jpg"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Human population structure can be inferred from multilocus DNA sequence data. In Rosenberg <i>et al.</i> (2002, 2005), individuals from 52 populations were examined at 993 DNA markers. These data was used to partitioned individuals into K = 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 clusters. In this figure, the average fractional membership of individuals from each population is represented by horizontal bars partitioned into K colored segments. 2 cluster analysis separated Africa and Eurasia from East Asia, Oceania, and America, 3 clusters separated Africa and Eurasia, 4 clusters separated America, 5 clusters separated Oceania (green), and 6 clusters subdivided native Americans.</div></div></div><p>In 2002, geneticist <a title="Spencer Wells" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Wells">Spencer Wells</a> completed a study of human out-migrations from Africa utilizing the <a title="DNA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA">DNA</a> of <a title="San" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San">San</a> <a title="Bushmen" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmen">Bushmen</a> of the <a title="Kalahari" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalahari">Kalahari</a> who, according to Wells, have the oldest distinctive DNA lineage on earth. Wells concluded from analysis of DNA specimens that the earliest human emigration from Africa of which there is definitive proof was that of ancestors of the San Bushmen to southern India and then along coastal routes to Australia (the Aborigines), while shortly afterwards a second migration from Africa, also by ancestors of San Bushmen, reached Central Asia, and thence covered most of the Eurasian continent.</p><p>The <a title="Single origin hypothesis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_origin_hypothesis">single origin hypothesis</a> (also known as the "Out of Africa" hypothesis) posits that the <a title="Homo sapiens" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_sapiens">Homo sapiens</a> evolved in Africa, later migrating and populating other continents, out-competing other related <a title="Species" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species">species</a> such as that exemplified by <a title="Java man" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_man">Java man</a>.</p><p><a id="Afrocentrism_and_the_academy" name="Afrocentrism_and_the_academy"></a></p><h2><span class="mw-headline">Afrocentrism and the academy</span></h2><p>A primary concern of Afrocentrism has been to engage what they claim to be biased methods and approaches used by European scholars, and the allegedly European dominated academy in relation to the African people, including Egypt. A seminal moment for Afrocentrism was the presentation of Senegalese scholar <a title="Cheikh Anta Diop" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheikh_Anta_Diop">Cheikh Anta Diop</a>, at the 1974 UNESCO symposium "The Peopling of Ancient Egypt and the Decipherment of Meroitic Script," <sup class="reference" id="_ref-3"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-3">[4]</a></sup>which attacked a long history of biased scholarship. In the words of one historian of Egypt, Jean Vercoutter, who attended:</p><table class="cquote" style="BORDER-TOP-STYLE: none; BORDER-RIGHT-STYLE: none; BORDER-LEFT-STYLE: none; BORDER-COLLAPSE: collapse; BACKGROUND-COLOR: transparent; BORDER-BOTTOM-STYLE: none" align="center"><tbody><tr><td style="PADDING-RIGHT: 10px; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 35px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 10px; COLOR: rgb(178,183,242); PADDING-TOP: 10px; FONT-FAMILY: 'Times New Roman',serif; TEXT-ALIGN: left" valign="top" width="20">“</td><td style="PADDING-RIGHT: 10px; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 4px; PADDING-TOP: 4px" valign="top"><i>Whilst acknowledging that the ancient Egyptian population was 'mixed', a fact confirmed by all the anthropological analyses, writers nevertheless speak of an Egyptian 'race', linking it to a well defined human type, the white, 'Hamitic' branch, also called 'Caucasoid', 'Mediterranean', 'Europid' or 'Eurafricanid'. There is a contradiction here: all the anthropologists agree in stressing the sizeable proportion of the Negroid element--almost a third and sometimes more--in the ethnic [i.e. biological] mixture of the ancient Egyptian 'population', but nobody has yet defined what is meant by the term 'Negroid', nor has any explanation been proffered as to how this Negroid element, by mingling with a 'Mediterranean' component often present in smaller proportions, could be assimilated into a purely Caucasoid race."</i></td><td style="PADDING-RIGHT: 10px; PADDING-LEFT: 10px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 36px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 10px; COLOR: rgb(178,183,242); PADDING-TOP: 10px; FONT-FAMILY: 'Times New Roman',serif; TEXT-ALIGN: right" valign="bottom" width="20">”</td></tr></tbody></table><p>- <a class="new" title="Jean Vercoutter" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Vercoutter&action=edit">Jean Vercoutter</a> <sup class="reference" id="_ref-4"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-4">[5]</a></sup></p><p>As regards definitions, Afrocentrists allege that European scholars carefully define Black peoples as narrowly as possible, creating an extreme "true Negro" south of the Sahara, while allocating all else not meeting the extreme type to "Caucasoid" groupings, including Ethiopians, Egyptians and Nubians (C. G. Seligman's Races of Africa, 1966)<sup class="reference" id="_ref-5"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-5">[6]</a></sup> French historian <a class="new" title="Jean Verncoutter" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Verncoutter&action=edit">Jean Verncoutter</a> (quoted above) argues that selective grouping is common among scholars where the ethnicity of the ancient Egyptians is involved, with Negroid remains being routinely classified as "Mediterranean" even though they were recorded in substantial numbers by archaeological workers ( Vercoutter 1978- The Peopling of ancient Egypt)<sup class="reference" id="_ref-6"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-6">[7]</a></sup> Afrocentrists also point of the work of Czech anthropologist Eugene Strouhal which describes both physical, cultural and material links of ancient Egypt with the peoples of Nubia and the Sahara, ( Strouhal (1968, 1971- Strouhal, E., ‘Evidence of the early penetration of Negroes into prehistoric Egypt)<sup class="reference" id="_ref-7"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-7">[8]</a></sup>, the analyses of Falkenburger (1947) which show a clear Negroid element, especially in the southern population and sometimes as predominating in the predynastic period<sup class="reference" id="_ref-8"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-8">[9]</a></sup>, and the research of archealogist Bruce Williams which argues for a Nubian influence on formation of the Egyptian kingships. <sup class="reference" id="_ref-9"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-9">[10]</a></sup> They also cite recent mainstream restudies which confirm the "mixed" character of the Egyptian people.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-10"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-10">[11]</a></sup></p><p>Afrocentrists also allege that the academy has continued to use theories of white civilizers flowing into Africa to explain the civilizations there, being unwilling to attribute any elaborate developments to blacks. Ironically, prominent Afrocentric critic <a title="Mary Lefkowitz" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Lefkowitz">Mary Lefkowitz</a> at times finds some common ground with Afrocentrists. In her "Not Out Of Africa"[12], Lefkowitz notes that a number of earlier historical theories suggesting Caucasians initially sweeping into ancient Egypt from the north have been rendered untenable by modern research, which suggests a movement of peoples from the South, up from the Sahara into the Nilotic zone.</p><p>"Recent work on skeletons and <a title="DNA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA">DNA</a> suggests that the people who settled in the Nile valley, like all of humankind, came from somewhere south of the <a title="Sahara" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara">Sahara</a>; they were not (as some nineteenth-century scholars had supposed) invaders from the North. See Bruce G. Trigger, "The Rise of Civilization in Egypt," Cambridge History of Africa (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1982), vol I, pp 489-90; S. O. Y. Keita, "Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships," History in Africa 20 (1993) 129-54."</p><p>On the basis of this varied research, some Afrocentrists argue that the Egyptians could indeed be classified as "Black." Other writers however argue that while the Egyptians clearly showed a range of types, including dark-skinned individuals others, calling them "Black" was an application of the "one-drop" rule of American culture, which would have been alien to the ancient Egyptians.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-11"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-11">[12]</a></sup> Afrocentrists reply that they are justified in doing so since the European academy routinely uses narrow definitions of Blacks, and uses subtle code for "Caucasoid" under such terms as "Mediterranean" or "Middle Eastern."<sup class="reference" id="_ref-12"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-12">[13]</a></sup></p><p>Afrocentrists hold that Africans exhibit a range of types and physical characteristics, and that such elements as wavy hair or <a class="new" title="Aquiline" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aquiline&action=edit">aquiline</a> facial features are part of a continuum of African types that do not depend on admixture with Caucasian groups. They cite the nonracial approach of Hiernaux (1975)<sup class="reference" id="_ref-13"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-13">[14]</a></sup> and Hassan (1988)<sup class="reference" id="_ref-14"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-14">[15]</a></sup> which demonstrates that populations can vary based on microevolutionary principles (climate adaptation, drift, selection), and that this variation is present in both living and fossil Africans (AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 87:245-254 (1992))<sup class="reference" id="_ref-15"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-15">[16]</a></sup>They condemn attempts to split African peoples into racial clusters as new versions of older, discredited theories such as the "Hamitic Hypothesis" and the <a title="Dynastic Race Theory" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastic_Race_Theory">Dynastic Race Theory</a> that attempted to separate out African groups like Nubians, Ethiopians and Somalians into "Caucasoid" groups that entered Africa to bring civilization to the natives. They also charge a double standard at play in the European academy which has made little attempt to define a "true white", <sup class="reference" id="_ref-16"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-16">[17]</a></sup>but does not hesitate to define Blacks as narrowly as possibly, while allocating as much as possible to broad "Caucasoid" or other categories when it comes to Egypt or other African civilizations. Afrocentric writer C.A. Diop captures this belief in a double standard as follows:</p><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>"But it is only the most gratuitous theory which considers the Dinka, the Nouer and the Masai, among others, to be Caucasoids. What if an African ethnologist were to persist in recognising as white only the blond, blue-eyed Scandinavians, and systematically refused membership to the remaining Europeans, and Mediterraneans in particular--the French, Italians, Greek, Spanish, and Portuguese? Just as the inhabitants of Scandinavia and the Mediterranean countries must be considered as two extreme poles of the same anthropological reality, so should the Negroes of East and West Africa be considered as the two extremes in the reality of the Negro world. To say that a Shillouk, a Dinka, or a Nouer is a Caucasoid is for an African as devoid of sense and scientific interest as would be, to a European, an attitude which maintained that a Greek or a Latin were not of the same race." <sup class="reference" id="_ref-17"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-17">[18]</a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl><p>Afrocentrists claim a growing acceptance of Egypt as an African culture with its own unique elements, citing mainstream scholars like Bruce Trigger of the Oriental Institute of Chicago who decries many approaches of the past as 'marred by a confusion of race, language, and culture and by an accompanying racism'.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-18"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-18">[19]</a></sup> and the approach of Egyptologist Frank Yurco, who sees the Egyptians, Nubians, Ethiopians, Somalians, etc as one localized Nile valley population, that need not be artificially clustered into racial percentages.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-19"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-19">[20]</a></sup> Afrocentric critic Mary Lefkowitz also argues against applying racial categories or terminology, holding that the ancients should stand by themselves in the context of their own times.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-20"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-20">[21]</a></sup></p><p><a id="Egypt_and_the_argument_of_African_cultural_unity" name="Egypt_and_the_argument_of_African_cultural_unity"></a></p><h2><span class="mw-headline">Egypt and the argument of African cultural unity</span></h2><div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 262px"><a class="internal" title="The ancient pyramids of Egypt" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Egyptian_Pyramids.jpg"><img class="thumbimage" height="195" alt="The ancient pyramids of Egypt" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Egyptian_Pyramids.jpg/260px-Egyptian_Pyramids.jpg" width="260" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Egyptian_Pyramids.jpg" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Egyptian_Pyramids.jpg"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>The ancient pyramids of Egypt</div></div></div><p>One of the most common claims of afrocentrist historians is that <a title="Ancient Egypt" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt">dynastic Egypt</a> was an indigenous African civilization. Although modern Egypt is <a title="Geopolitics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitics">geopolitically</a> located in the <a title="Middle East" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East">Middle East</a>, Egypt is geographically located in the African continent, and afrocentrist historians argue that Egypt should be understood, in historical terms, as an African state.</p><p>The basis of this argument is the belief that the salient cultural characteristics of ancient <a title="Egypt" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt">Egypt</a> are indigenous to Africa and that these features are present in other African civilizations.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-21"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-21">[22]</a></sup> Critical of much of <a title="Mainstream" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainstream">mainstream</a> <a title="Egyptology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptology">Egyptology</a>, Afrocentrists are of the opinion that the study of ancient Egyptian culture artificially disconnects it from other early African civilizations, such as <a title="Kerma" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerma">Kerma</a> and the <a title="Meroe" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meroe">Meroitic</a> civilizations of <a title="Nubia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia">Nubia</a> — particularly in light of the fact that archaeological evidence clearly indicates a confluence among this cultural triad.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-22"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-22">[23]</a></sup> This perspective, championed by the <a title="Senegal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal">Senegalese</a> scholar <a title="Cheikh Anta Diop" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheikh_Anta_Diop">Cheikh Anta Diop</a>, is known formally as the Cultural Unity Theory. This theory has proponents outside Afrocentric circles, among them <a title="Bruce Williams" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Williams">Bruce Williams</a> of the <a class="new" title="Oriental Institute of Chicago" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oriental_Institute_of_Chicago&action=edit">Oriental Institute of Chicago</a>. Afrocentrists also claim that these civilizations made significant contributions to ancient <a title="Greece" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece">Greece</a> and <a title="Rome" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome">Rome</a> during their formative periods.</p><p>The more conventional belief among archaeologists and Egyptologists such as <a class="new" title="Frank J. Yurco" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frank_J._Yurco&action=edit">Frank J. Yurco</a> and <a class="new" title="Fekri Hassan" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fekri_Hassan&action=edit">Fekri Hassan</a> and historians is that the ancient Egyptian civilization was a unique mix of indigenous Nilotic peoples, related, in terms of culture and <a title="Egyptian language" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_language">language</a>, to the <a title="Afro-Asiatic language" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Asiatic_language">Afro-Asiatic language</a> family spoken across northern Africa, <a title="Chad" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad">Chad</a> and the <a title="Horn of Africa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn_of_Africa">Horn of Africa</a> and by the <a title="Beja" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beja">Beja</a> of the <a title="Sudan" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan">Sudan</a>. people.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-23"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism#_note-23">[24]</a></sup> The conventional belief in a non-Negroid Egypt has been challenged by scholars who believe the cultural similarities between Egypt and the <a title="Levant" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levant">Levant</a> are due to the exportation of cultural elements from the Nilotic civilizations, rather than the reverse.</p><p><a id="Egypt.27s_Sphere_of_influence_Debate" name="Egypt.27s_Sphere_of_influence_Debate"></a></p><h3><span class="editsection">[<a title="Edit section: Egypt's Sphere of influence Debate" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afrocentrism&action=edit&section=9">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Egypt's Sphere of influence Debate</span></h3><div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 182px"><a class="internal" title="'The" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:National_Geographic_-_King_Tut_face.jpg"><img class="thumbimage" height="259" alt="'The" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/National_Geographic_-_King_Tut_face.jpg/180px-National_Geographic_-_King_Tut_face.jpg" width="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:National_Geographic_-_King_Tut_face.jpg" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:National_Geographic_-_King_Tut_face.jpg"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>The controversial and contested rendering of Tutankhamun exhibiting hazel eyes and a "mid-range" skin tone, as shown on the cover of <i><a title="National Geographic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic">National Geographic</a></i> in 2005.</div></div></div><p>This Afrocentric view finds itself in direct opposition to the conclusions of Eurocentric scholars such as <a title="United Kingdom" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom">British</a> historian <a title="Arnold J. Toynbee" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee">Arnold Toynbee</a>, who regarded the ancient Egyptian cultural sphere as having died out without leaving a successor, and who derided as "myth" the idea that Egypt was the "origin of Western civilization." However, there are numerous accounts in the historical record dating back several centuries wherein scholars have written of an Egypt and its contributions to Mediterranean civilizations.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since April 2007" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></a></sup></p><p><a id="Criticism_of_Afrocentrism" name="Criticism_of_Afrocentrism"></a></p><h3><span class="mw-headline">Criticism of Afrocentrism</span></h3><p>Afrocentrism is generally rejected in the academic community because it is generally not regarded as an academic theory or idea but rather a social and political one, teaching invented history for the sake of the individual and the political rather than the historical. The claims against Eurocentrism are often so broad and unsupported as to be tantamount to conspiracy theory; often, they cannot be proved or disproved.</p><p>One of Afrocentrism's most prominent critics, <a title="Mary Lefkowitz" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Lefkowitz">Mary Lefkowitz</a> has characterized Afrocentricity as "an excuse to teach myth as history." Likewise, African-American History professor Clarence E. Walker has proclaimed it to be "a mythology that is racist, reactionary, and essentially therapeutic." Afrocentrists, however, level similar charges at what they charge is a pronounced Eurocentrism in mainstream historical scholarship, and argue that the Afrocentrist approach merely attempts to set the historical record straight by overturning a false, racially skewed paradigm.</p><p><a id="General_Criticism" name="General_Criticism"></a></p><h2><span class="mw-headline">General Criticism</span></h2><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 152px"><a class="internal" title="Book Cover The African origins of civilization" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Diopbookcover.jpg"><img class="thumbimage" height="220" alt="Book Cover The African origins of civilization" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2e/Diopbookcover.jpg/150px-Diopbookcover.jpg" width="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Diopbookcover.jpg" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Diopbookcover.jpg"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Book Cover The African origins of civilization</div></div></div><p>A number of criticisms continue to be levelled against Afrocentricity. The most common counter argument is there is no center in Africa. Rather, African diasporal cultures emanate from a variety of different places and sources, making it difficult or impossible to locate a composite African source. The focus on Egypt as opposed to other African civilizations is also criticized as reflecting a desire to mimic <a title="European" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European">European</a> views of <a title="Greece" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece">Greece</a>. Another common critique is of the United States-centered nature of the Afrocentric project. Although the largest African diasporic population exists in <a title="Brazil" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil">Brazil</a> rather than in <a title="North America" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America">North America</a>, the scholarship is overwhelmingly concentrated on the latter, and the experience and values of Black Americans have been taken as normative.</p><p>Afrocentrists say most Brazilians with African blood do not consider themselves Black even with prominent African features. Brazil has never produced a black civil rights movement that asserted its African roots. Similarly, modern day Egyptians vary in skin tone and phenotype, including the <a title="Copts" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copts">Copts</a>, who prefer to be classed as North African Caucasoid or caucasian. According to Afrocentrist authors, the eurocentric paradigm has taken hold of the social fabric of diasporic African peoples, thereby the need for Afrocentrism to counteract the paradigm with the greatest civilization Africa has produced.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><a title="Wikipedia:Citing sources" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since April 2007" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<i>citation needed</i>]</span></a></sup></p><p><a id="List_of_prominent_Afrocentric_authors" name="List_of_prominent_Afrocentric_authors"></a></p><h2><span class="mw-headline">List of prominent Afrocentric authors</span></h2><ul><li><a title="Molefi Kete Asante" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molefi_Kete_Asante">Molefi Kete Asante</a>, professor, author: <i>Afrocentricity: The theory of Social Change</i>; <i>The Afrocentric Idea</i>; <i>The Egyptian Philosophers: Ancient African Voices from Imhotep to Akhenaten</i></li><li><a class="new" title="Ishakamusa Barashango" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ishakamusa_Barashango&action=edit">Ishakamusa Barashango</a>, college professor and lecturer; founder, Temple of the Black Messiah, School of History and Religion; co-founder and creative director, Fourth Dynasty Publishing Company, Silver Spring, <a title="Maryland" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland">Maryland</a></li><li><a title="Hakim Bey" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakim_Bey">Hakim Bey</a>, leader of the <a title="Moorish Science Temple" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorish_Science_Temple">Moorish Science Temple</a>, author of the "Journal of the Moorish Paradigm"</li><li><a title="Jacob Carruthers" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Carruthers">Jacob Carruthers</a>, Egyptologist; founding director of the Association for the Study of Classical African Civilization; founder and director of the Kemetic Institute, <a title="Chicago" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago">Chicago</a></li><li><a title="Cheikh Anta Diop" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheikh_Anta_Diop">Cheikh Anta Diop</a> <a class="external autonumber" title="http://www.nbufront.org/html/MastersMuseums/JHClarke/Contemporaries/CheikhAntaDiop.html" href="http://www.nbufront.org/html/MastersMuseums/JHClarke/Contemporaries/CheikhAntaDiop.html" rel="nofollow">[4]</a>,<a class="external autonumber" title="http://home3.inet.tele.dk/mcamara/antadiop.html" href="http://home3.inet.tele.dk/mcamara/antadiop.html" rel="nofollow">[5]</a>, author: <i>The African Origin of Civilization: Myth or Reality</i>; <i>Civilization or Barbarism: An Authentic Anthropology</i>; <i>Precolonial Black Africa</i>; <i>The Cultural Unity of Black Africa: The Domains of Patriarchy and of Matriarchy in Classical Antiquity</i>; <i>The Peopling of Ancient Egypt & the Deciphering of the Meroitic Script</i></li><li>H.B. ("Barry") Fell, Harvard professor, linguist, author: <i>Saga America</i>, 1980 <a class="external autonumber" title="http://www.equinox-project.com/drfell.htm" href="http://www.equinox-project.com/drfell.htm" rel="nofollow">[6]</a></li><li><a class="new" title="Drusilla Dunjee Houston" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drusilla_Dunjee_Houston&action=edit">Drusilla Dunjee Houston</a>, lecturer, syndicated columnist, author: <i>Wonderful Ethiopians of the Ancient Cushite Empire</i>, 1926.</li><li><a title="Yosef Ben-Jochannan" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yosef_Ben-Jochannan">Yosef Ben-Jochannan</a>, author: <i>African Origins of Major "Western Religions"</i>; <i>Black Man of the Nile and His Family</i>; <i>Africa: Mother of Western Civilization</i>; <i>New Dimensions in African History</i>; <i>The Myth of Exodus and Genesis and the Exclusion of Their African Origins</i>; <i>Africa: Mother of Western Civilization</i>; <i>Abu Simbel to Ghizeh: A Guide Book and Manual</i></li><li><a title="Runoko Rashidi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runoko_Rashidi">Runoko Rashidi</a> <a class="external autonumber" title="http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/runoko.html" href="http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/runoko.html" rel="nofollow">[7]</a>, author: <i>Introduction to African Civilizations</i>; <i>The global African community: The African presence in Asia, Australia, and the South Pacific</i></li><li><a title="Joel August Rogers" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel_August_Rogers">J.A. Rogers</a>, author: <i>Sex and Race: Negro-Caucasian Mixing in All Ages and All Lands : The Old World</i>; <i>Nature Knows No Color Line</i>; <i>Sex and Race: A History of White, Negro, and Indian Miscegenation in the Two Americas : The New World</i>; <i>100 Amazing Facts About the Negro With Complete Proof: A Short Cut to the World History of the Negro</i></li><li><a title="Ivan van Sertima" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_van_Sertima">Ivan van Sertima</a>, author: <i>They Came before Columbus: The African Presence in Ancient America</i>, <i>African Presence in Early Europe</i>; <i>Blacks in Science Ancient and Modern</i>; <i>African Presence in Early Asia</i>; <i>African Presence in Early America</i>; <i>Early America Revisited</i>; <i>Egypt Revisited: Journal of African Civilizations</i>; <i>Nile Valley Civilizations</i>; <i>Egypt: Child of Africa (Journal of African Civilizations, V. 12)</i>; <i>The Golden Age of the Moor (Journal of African Civilizations, Vol. 11, Fall 1991)</i>; <i>Great Black Leaders: Ancient and Modern</i>; <i>Great African Thinkers: Cheikh Anta Diop</i><a class="external autonumber" title="http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/sertima.html" href="http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/sertima.html" rel="nofollow">[8]</a></li><li><a title="Chancellor Williams" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_Williams">Chancellor Williams</a>, author: <i>The Destruction of Black Civilization: Great Issues of a Race from 4500 B.C. to 2000 A.D.</i></li><li><a title="Théophile Obenga" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Théophile_Obenga">Théophile Obenga</a>, author: <i>Ancient Egypt and Black Africa : a student's handbook for the study of Ancient Egypt in philosophy, linguistics, and gender relations</i></li><li><a title="Asa Hilliard" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asa_Hilliard">Asa Hilliard</a>, III, author: <i>SBA: The Reawakening of the African Mind</i>; <i>The Teachings of Ptahhotep</i></li></ul><p><a id="In_Fiction" name="In_Fiction"></a></p><p><a id="References" name="References"></a></p><h2><br /></h2><p><a id="Bibliography" name="Bibliography"></a></p><p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><span class="mw-headline">See also</span></p><ul><li><a title="African philosophy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_philosophy">African philosophy</a></li><li><a title="African writing systems" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_writing_systems">African writing systems</a></li><li><a title="Afro-asiatic languages" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-asiatic_languages">Afro-asiatic languages</a></li><li><a title="Axum" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axum">Axum</a></li><li><a title="Black Athena" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Athena">Black Athena</a></li><li><a title="Cultural appropriation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_appropriation">Cultural appropriation</a></li><li><a title="Egyptology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptology">Egyptology</a></li><li><a title="Ethnocentrism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li><li><a title="Eurocentrism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocentrism">Eurocentrism</a></li><li><a title="Great Zimbabwe" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Zimbabwe">Great Zimbabwe</a></li><li><a title="Historiography" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography">Historiography</a></li><li><a title="History of ancient Egypt" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt">History of ancient Egypt</a></li><li><a title="Kamau Kambon" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamau_Kambon">Kamau Kambon</a></li><li><a title="Kush" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kush">Kush</a></li><li><a title="Meroe" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meroe">Meroe</a></li><li><a title="Nilotic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilotic">Nilotic</a></li><li><a title="Nubia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia">Nubia</a></li><li><a title="Sub-Saharan Africa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></li><li><a title="Sun Ra" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Ra">Sun Ra</a></li><li><a title="Tutankhamun" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a></li></ul><p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a></p><h2><span class="mw-headline"><br /></span></h2><table class="navbox collapsible" id="collapsibleTable0" style="MARGIN: auto; TEXT-ALIGN: left"><tbody><tr><th style="TEXT-ALIGN: center" colspan="2"><br /></th></tr><tr><th style="LINE-HEIGHT: 11pt"><br /></th><td><br /></td></tr><tr><th style="LINE-HEIGHT: 11pt"><br /></th><td><br /></td></tr><tr><th style="LINE-HEIGHT: 11pt"><br /></th><td><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><!-- Pre-expand include size: 207548 bytes Post-expand include size: 64295 bytes Template argument size: 44525 bytes Maximum: 2048000 bytes --><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:194624-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20070602014337 --><div class="printfooter">Retrieved from "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism</a>"</div><div id="catlinks"><p class="catlinks"><span dir="ltr"><a title="Category:African-American topics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:African-American_topics"><br /></a></span></p></div><!-- end content --></div><div class="portlet" id="p-logo"></div><script type="text/javascript"> </script><br /><br /><br /><div class="portlet" id="p-search"><div class="pBody" id="searchBody"><form id="searchform" action="/wiki/Special:Search"><input id="searchInput" title="Search Wikipedia [alt-f]" accesskey="f" name="search"><input class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton" type="submit" value="Go" name="go"><input class="searchButton" id="mw-searchButton" type="submit" value="Search" name="fulltext"><br /></form></div></div><div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img alt="Powered by MediaWiki" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" /></a></div><div id="f-copyrightico"><a href="http://wikimediafoundation.org/"><img alt="Wikimedia Foundation" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/images/wikimedia-button.png" border="0" /></a></div>This page was last modified 15:02, 31 May 20Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-15274139154620974012007-06-01T18:40:00.000-04:002007-06-01T22:24:54.029-04:00Eurocentrism - Superiority of Whites<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocentrism">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocentrism</a><br />Eurocentrism<br />From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br />Jump to: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocentrism#column-one">navigation</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocentrism#searchInput">search</a><br />Eurocentrism is the practice, conscious or otherwise, of placing emphasis on <a title="Europe" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe">European</a> (and, generally, <a title="Western world" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world">Western</a>) concerns, culture and values at the expense of those of other cultures. Eurocentrism is an instance of <a title="Ethnocentrism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnocentrism">ethnocentrism</a>, perhaps especially relevant because of its alignment with current and past real power structures in the world. Eurocentrism often involved claiming cultures that were not white or European as being such, or denying their existence at all.<br />The source of a cultural tradition can be seen in the balance of emphasis given to various thinkers and ideas in discussing a subject. In the <a title="1960" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960">1960s</a> a reaction against the priority given to a <a title="Western canon" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_canon">canon</a> of "<a title="Dead white males" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_white_males">Dead White European Males</a>" provided a slogan which neatly sums up the charge of eurocentrism (alongside other important -centrisms).<br />In Britain, eurocentric and eurocentrist are occasionally used in political discourse to describe supporters of <a title="European integration" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_integration">European integration</a> and the <a title="European Union" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union">European Union</a>, in other words as an <a title="Antonym" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonym">antonym</a> of <a title="Euroscepticism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euroscepticism">eurosceptic</a>.<br />Contents[<a class="internal" id="togglelink" href="javascript:toggleToc()">hide</a>]<br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocentrism#Examples_of_purported_Eurocentrism">1 Examples of purported Eurocentrism</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocentrism#Origins">2 Origins</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocentrism#Challenging_Eurocentric_models">3 Challenging Eurocentric models</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocentrism#Bibliography">4 Bibliography</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocentrism#See_also">5 See also</a><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocentrism#External_links">6 External links</a><br />//<br /><a id="Examples_of_purported_Eurocentrism" name="Examples_of_purported_Eurocentrism"></a><br />[<a title="Edit section: Examples of purported Eurocentrism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eurocentrism&action=edit&section=1">edit</a>] Examples of purported Eurocentrism<br /><a title="The European miracle" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_European_miracle">The European miracle</a> theory of Europe's rise to its current economic and political position has often been criticised for Eurocentrism, though the scientific and cultural changes in Europe in the post-Renaissance era are undeniably central to the creation of the modern world.<br /><a class="internal" title="World map showing Europe horizontally centred" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:LocationEurope.png"></a><br /><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:LocationEurope.png"></a>World map showing Europe horizontally centred<a title="Cartesian coordinate system" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system">Cartesian</a> <a title="Map" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map">maps</a> have been designed throughout known history to centre the northwestern part of Europe (most notably <a title="Great Britain" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain">Great Britain</a>) in the map, although American map makers do otherwise, as do the Chinese. The definition of the <a title="Prime meridian" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_meridian">prime meridian</a>, placed in <a title="Greenwich, London" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich%2C_London">Greenwich, London</a> is likewise said to be Eurocentric. The Greenwich Meridian has today been universally recognised as the <a title="Longitudinal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal">longitudinal</a> line representing zero degrees east and west mainly because by doing so it places the <a title="International Date Line" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Date_Line">International Date Line</a> in the <a title="Pacific" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific">Pacific</a> and so inconveniences the smallest number of people. In a purely geographic sense, mainly in <a title="Cartography" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography">cartography</a>, all places in the world not on this meridian are said to be either 'east' or 'west', and hence in either the <a title="Eastern hemisphere" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_hemisphere">eastern hemisphere</a> or <a title="Western hemisphere" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_hemisphere">western hemisphere</a>. Arranging two-dimensional maps in broadly this arrangement has the advantage that it ensures that all land regions can be concentrated in the centre without continents (except Antarctica) being significantly split between the Eastern and Western hemispheres. In such maps the <a title="Bering strait" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bering_strait">Bering strait</a> is used to split the globe, with the Americas at the left and <a title="East Asia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia">East Asia</a> at the right. Such maps in fact typically place Africa, not Europe, in the exact centre of the world.<br />The regional names around the world are named in honour of European travellers and are in orientation of a Eurocentric worldview. Middle East describes an area slightly east of Europe. The Orient or Far East is east of Europe, whereas the West is Western Europe and the Americas (although in modern geopolitical parlance the West also includes South Africa, Australia and can include Japan). Although many of these terms are not intentionally designed to relegate other groups to a subordinate role vis-à-vis the people of Europe, the effects of Eurocentricism create a self-sustaining belief, that Europe and Europeans are central and most important to all meaningful aspects of the world's social values, and cultural heritage. One might defend the current system by saying that to the English, the Americas are to the west. <a title="China" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China">China</a> is also farther east than Iraq, so, at least in English, such names are justified.<br /><a title="World History" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_History">World History</a> taught in European and American schools frequently teaches only the history of Europe and the United States in detail, with only brief mention of events in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The Americas, Africa and Australasia are usually not mentioned in the timeline until they are <a title="Colonised" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonised">colonised</a> by Europeans, with no reference to the pre-conquest culture, civilisation or technology.<br />The <a title="History of science and technology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology">history of science and technology</a> is often taught as having begun with the Greeks, then moving on with the Romans, then stopping during the <a title="Dark Ages" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Ages">Dark Ages</a>, before continuing with the <a title="Renaissance" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and the <a title="Industrial Revolution" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. Less mention is made in European or American schools of the various achievements of <a title="Ancient Egypt" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt">ancient Egyptian</a>, <a title="Mesopotamia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a>, <a title="Science and technology in ancient India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_ancient_India">Indian</a>, <a title="History of science and technology in China" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China">Chinese</a> or <a title="Islamic Golden Age" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age">Muslim</a> thinkers, although in <a title="Chinese language" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language">Chinese</a> or <a title="Arabic language" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language">Arabic</a> schools other matters are found on the curriculum.<br />Western accounts of the <a title="History of mathematics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics">history of mathematics</a> are often considered Eurocentric in that they do not acknowledge major contributions of mathematics from other regions of the world, such as <a title="Indian mathematics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_mathematics">Indian mathematics</a>, <a title="Chinese mathematics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_mathematics">Chinese mathematics</a>, and <a title="Arabic mathematics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_mathematics">Islamic mathematics</a>, despite Islamic mathematics, as well as some contributions from India (such as <a title="Trigonometry" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometry">trigonometry</a> and the <a title="Hindu-Arabic numeral system" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu-Arabic_numeral_system">Indian-Arabic</a> <a title="Decimal system" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_system">decimal system</a>), having an important influence on <a title="Renaissance" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance">Renaissance</a> European mathematics. Most of their other contributions were mainly independently arrived at ideas only "discovered" by the West in the 19th or 20th Centuries.<br /><a title="University" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University">University</a> courses on the history of human thought that cover <a title="Aristotle" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a title="Aquinas" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquinas">Aquinas</a>, <a title="Kant" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kant">Kant</a> and <a title="Karl Marx" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx">Marx</a>, but neglect <a title="Confucius" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius">Confucius</a>, <a title="Buddha" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha">Buddha</a>, the <a title="Upanishads" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upanishads">Upanishads</a> or <a title="Avicenna" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, for example, might be regarded as eurocentric.<br />In an overview of 17th century history, for instance, it would be seen by some to be eurocentric to list numerous dates, events and political figures from the many states of Europe, but make only brief mentions for the <a title="Manchu" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchu">Manchu</a> conquest of <a title="China" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China">China</a> or the <a title="Mughal Empire" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire">Mughals</a> in <a title="History of India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India">India</a>, or the <a title="Aksum" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksum">Aksum</a> Christian period in <a title="Ethiopia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>.<br /><a id="Origins" name="Origins"></a><br />[<a title="Edit section: Origins" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eurocentrism&action=edit&section=2">edit</a>] Origins<br />As mentioned earlier, in many Western education systems, history of science and technology is often taught having begun with the Greeks. While indeed, Classical Greek literature has provided the framework for the social, political, and intellectual climate of Modern Europe - there is evidence that many if not most Greek academia was highly biased with Hellenocentricism. The philosophy, historiography, and polity of other highly educated societies which provided research that contradicted the findings of famous Hellenist scholars was often neglected from being taught to students, or worse, treated as invalid until a Greek confirmed the same discovery. <a title="Flavius Josephus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavius_Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a>, a 1st Century CE Jewish intellectual who lived in the metropolis of <a title="Alexandria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, Egypt wrote a scathing criticism of this institutionalized discrimination, specifically directing it to Western philosophers. (Taken from <a title="Against Apion" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_Apion">Against Apion</a> Book I, Chapter 2; emphasis added):<br />2. And now, in the first place, I cannot but greatly wonder at those men, who suppose that we must attend to none but Greeks, when we are inquiring about the most ancient facts, and must inform ourselves of their truth from them only, while we must not believe ourselves nor other men; for I am convinced that the very reverse is the truth of the case. I mean this, - if we will not be led by vain opinions, but will make inquiry after truth from facts themselves; for they will find that almost all which concerns the Greeks happened not long ago; nay, one may say, is of yesterday only. I speak of the building of their cities, the inventions of their arts, and the description of their laws; and as for their care about the writing down of their histories, it is very near the last thing they set about. However, they [i.e., the Greeks] acknowledge themselves, so far, that it was the <a title="Egyptians" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptians">Egyptians</a>, the <a title="Chaldeans" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaldeans">Chaldeans</a>, and the <a title="Phoenicia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a> (for I will not now reckon ourselves [i.e, the Israelite civilization] among them) that have preserved the memorials of the most ancient and most lasting traditions of mankind; for almost all these nations inhabit such countries as are least subject to destruction from the world about them; and these also have taken especial care to have nothing omitted of what was done among them; but their history was esteemed sacred, and put into public tables, as written by men of the greatest wisdom they had among them.<br />Hundreds of years later, little had changed in the academic climate - even after the European <a title="Dark Ages" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Ages">Dark Ages</a> forced scholars to turn to Arab, Persian, and Asian cultures for the preservation of Greek knowledge and the progression of science and technology - presumably because the <a title="Renaissance" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance">Renaissance</a> which eventually ensued was viewed as a total return to Classical Hellenistic thought (and prejudice). Assumptions of European <a title="Superiority" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superiority">superiority</a> arose during the period of European <a title="Imperialism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialism">imperialism</a>, which started slowly in the <a title="16th century" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th_century">16th century</a>, accelerated in the <a title="17th century" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17th_century">17th</a> and <a title="18th century" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th_century">18th</a> centuries and reached its zenith in the <a title="19th century" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_century">19th century</a>. The progressive character of European culture was contrasted with traditional hunting, farming and herding societies in many of the areas of the world being newly explored by Europeans, such as <a title="The Americas" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Americas">the Americas</a>, most of <a title="Africa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa">Africa</a>, and later the <a title="Pacific" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific">Pacific</a> and <a title="Australasia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australasia">Australasia</a>. Even the complex civilizations of the <a title="Persia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persia">Persia</a>, <a title="India" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India">India</a>, <a title="China" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China">China</a> and <a title="Japan" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan">Japan</a> were considered to be underdeveloped relative to Europe, and were often characterised as static. For many European writers of this time the history of Europe became paradigmatic for the rest of the world. Other cultures were identified as having reached a stage through which Europe itself had already passed – primitive <a title="Hunter-gatherer" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a>; <a title="Farming" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farming">farming</a>; early <a title="Civilization" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilization">civilization</a>; <a title="Feudalism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalism">feudalism</a>; modern liberal-capitalism. Only Europe had achieved the last stage. It was thus thought to be uniquely responsible for the scientific, technological and cultural achievements that constitute the <a title="Modern world" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_world">modern world</a>. Furthermore, scientific models for understanding the world were deemed to have replaced religious or speculative accounts. The extent to which science itself can be considered to be specifically "European" is still debated.<br />For some writers, such as <a title="Karl Marx" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx">Karl Marx</a>, the centrality of Europe to an understanding of world history did not imply any innate European superiority, but he nevertheless assumed that Europe provided a model for the world as a whole. Others looked forward to the expansion of modernity throughout the world through trade or <a title="Imperialism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialism">imperialism</a> (or both). By the late 19th Century the theory that European achievements arose from innate racial superiority became widespread: justifying <a title="Slavery" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery">slavery</a> and other forms of political and economic exploitation, even being used to validate <a title="Genocide" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide">genocide</a>.<br />The colonising period involved the widespread settlement of parts of the Americas and Australasia with European people, and also the establishment of outposts and colonial administrations in parts of Asia and <a title="Africa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa">Africa</a>. As a result, the majority populations of the Americas, Australia and New Zealand typically trace their ancestry to Europe. For this reason a Europe-centred history may be taught in such countries, even though their populations are now geographically far removed from Europe itself, but have nevertheless been brought up into what may be regarded as mainly European cultural traditions.<br /><a id="Challenging_Eurocentric_models" name="Challenging_Eurocentric_models"></a><br />[<a title="Edit section: Challenging Eurocentric models" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eurocentrism&action=edit&section=3">edit</a>] Challenging Eurocentric models<br />During the same period that European writers were claiming paradigmatic status for their own history, European scholars were also beginning to develop a knowledge of the histories and cultures of other peoples. In some cases the locally established histories were accepted, in other cases new models were developed, such as the <a title="Aryan invasion theory" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan_invasion_theory">Aryan invasion theory</a> for the origin of <a title="Vedic period" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_period">Vedic culture</a> in India, which has been criticised for having at one time been modelled in such a way as to support claims for European superiority. At the same time the intellectual traditions of Eastern cultures were becoming more widely known in the West, mediated by figures such as <a title="Rabindranath Tagore" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore">Rabindranath Tagore</a>. By the early 20th century some historians such as <a title="Arnold J. Toynbee" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee">Arnold J. Toynbee</a> were attempting to construct multi-focal models of world civilizations. Toynbee also drew attention in Europe to non-European historians such as the medieval Tunisian scholar <a title="Ibn Khaldun" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a>. He also established links with Asian thinkers, for example through his dialogues with <a title="Daisaku Ikeda" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daisaku_Ikeda">Daisaku Ikeda</a> of <a title="Soka Gakkai International" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soka_Gakkai_International">Soka Gakkai International</a>.<br />At the same time, non-European historians were involved in complex engagements with European models of history as contrasted with their own traditions. Historical models centering on China, Japan, India and Persia and other nations existed within those cultures, which to varying degrees maintained their own cultural traditions, though countries that were directly controlled by European powers were more affected by Eurocentric models than were others. Thus Japan absorbed Western ideas while maintaining its own cultural identity, while India under <a title="British Raj" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Raj">British rule</a> was subjected to a highly Anglocentric model of its history and culture.<br />Even in the nineteenth century anti-colonial movements had developed claims about national traditions and values that were set against those of Europe. In some cases, as with China, local cultural values and traditions were so powerful that Westernisation did not overwhelm long-established Chinese attitudes to its own cultural centrality. In contrast, countries such as Australia defined their nationhood entirely in terms of an overseas extension of European history. It was, until recently, thought to have had no history or serious culture before colonization. The history of the native inhabitants was subsumed by the Western disciplines of <a title="Ethnology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnology">ethnology</a> and <a title="Archaeology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology">archaeology</a>. In central and South America a merger of immigrant and native histories was constructed. Nationalist movements appropriated the history of native civilizations such as the <a title="Mayans" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayans">Mayans</a> and <a title="Incas" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incas">Incas</a> to construct models of cultural identity that claimed a fusion between immigrant and native identity.<br /><a id="Bibliography" name="Bibliography"></a><br />[<a title="Edit section: Bibliography" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eurocentrism&action=edit&section=4">edit</a>] Bibliography<br /><a title="Samir Amin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samir_Amin">Samir Amin</a>: L´eurocentrisme, critique d´une idéologie. Paris 1988, engl. Eurocentrism, Monthly Review Press 1989, <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0853457867">ISBN 0853457867</a><br />J.M. Blaut: The Colonizer's Model of the World: Geographical Diffusionism and Eurocentric History . Guilford Press 1993. <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0898623480">ISBN 0898623480</a><br />J.M. Blaut: Eight Eurocentric Historians. Guilford Press 2000. <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=1572305916">ISBN 1572305916</a><br />Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference, Princeton UP 2000<br />Gerhard Hauck, Die Gesellschaftstheorie und ihr Anderes : wider den Eurozentrismus der Sozialwissenschaften, Münster 2003<br />Vassilis Lambropoulos, The rise of eurocentrism : anatomy of interpretation, Princeton, NJ : Princeton Univ. Press, 1993<br />Jose Rabasa, Inventing America: Spanish Historiography and the Formation of Eurocentrism (Oklahoma Project for Discourse and Theory, Vol 2), University of Oklahoma Press 1994<br />Ella Shohat and Robert Stam, Unthinking Eurocentrism: multiculturalism and the media, Routledge 1994<br />Charlotte Spitzer, Neorassismus und Europa : rassistische Strukturen in der Selbstvergewisserung europäischer Identität, Frankfurt am Main [etc.] : Lang, 2003<br /><a title="Ngugi wa Thiong'o" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngugi_wa_Thiong%27o">Ngugi wa Thiong'o</a>, Moving the Centre: The Struggle for Cultural Freedom, Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1993<br /><a title="Robert J.C. Young" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_J.C._Young">Robert J.C. Young</a>, White mythologies : writing history and the west, 2nd edition, Taylor & Francis, 2004<br /><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><br />[<a title="Edit section: See also" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eurocentrism&action=edit&section=5">edit</a>] See also<br /><a title="Afrocentrism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a><br /><a title="American exceptionalism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_exceptionalism">American exceptionalism</a><br /><a title="Anthropocentrism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropocentrism">Anthropocentrism</a><br /><a title="Ethnocentrism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a><br /><a title="Pan-European identity" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-European_identity">Pan-European identity</a><br /><a title="Orientalism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientalism">Orientalism</a><br /><a title="Postmodernism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a><br /><a title="Sinocentrism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinocentrism">Sinocentrism</a><br /><a class="new" title="Japanocentrism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japanocentrism&action=edit">Japanocentrism</a><br /><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><br />[<a title="Edit section: External links" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eurocentrism&action=edit&section=6">edit</a>] External links<br /><a class="external text" title="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Projects/Pearce/Chapters/Ch10.html" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Projects/Pearce/Chapters/Ch10.html" rel="nofollow">Eurocentrism in Mathematics</a><br />Retrieved from "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocentrism">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocentrism</a>"<br /><a title="Special:Categories" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Categories">Categories</a>: <a title="Category:Sociology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Sociology">Sociology</a> <a title="Category:Ethnocentrism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a> <a title="Category:Prejudices" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Prejudices">Prejudices</a> <a title="Category:Political neologisms" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Political_neologisms">Political neologisms</a> <a title="Category:Eurocentrism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Eurocentrism">Eurocentrism</a>Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-46700381172740437322007-06-01T17:38:00.000-04:002007-06-01T18:47:14.991-04:00Timelines -and Maps - ancient and classical history<a href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_time_africa">http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_time_africa</a><br />_subsaharan.htm<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Timelines<br />Sub-Saharan<br /><a href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_time_africa_egypt.htm">Egypt</a> <a href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_time_africa_subsaharan.htm">Sub Saharan</a> <a href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_time_africa_index.htm">Africa</a><br /><a href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/Africa/Africa.html">Africa - Web Chronology Project</a>Timeline of Africa south of the Sahara, from the North Park University Web Chronology Project. Ancient period includes Urbanization South of the Sahara.<br /><a href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.angelfire.com/or/africanhistory/field11.html">African Timeline</a> Approximately dated events include: earliest stone tools in Ethiopia and East Africa, first settlements in Nile Delta, Sahara fertile enough for human occupation, earliest cave drawings in Sahara, building of the Great Pyramid, Nok culture, introduction of camels, East African coast starts trading with Romans and Arabs and Eastern Africa starts growing yams and bananas.<br /><a href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.mariner.org/age/histexp.html">Age of Exploration Timeline</a> From Snefru in 3200 B.C. to Cook's death in 1779, a timeline of adventurers.<br /><a href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.hyperhistory.com/online%5Fn2/civil%5Fn2/civ%5Ftimetable.html">Civilizations Timeline</a>Colorful timeline of most major civilizations. Easy to see at a glance.<br /><a href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.hyperhistory.com/online%5Fn2/civil%5Fn2/hist%5F2.html">Cross Cultural Timeline</a>From The History Channel, this graphic timeline shows what was happening in America, Europe, Middle East, Egypt, India, China, Japan, and Africa for 500 years starting in 500 B.C.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Ancient Maps:<br /><br /><br /><a href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/maps/ss/mapsindex.htm">http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/maps/ss/mapsindex.htm</a><br /><br /><br /><a href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/maps/ss/mapsindex_2.htm">http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/maps/ss/mapsindex_2.htm</a><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Ancient Atlas - Maps and Geography of the Ancient World<br /><a href="http://photobucket.com" target="_blank"><img alt="Photo Sharing and Video Hosting at Photobucket" src="http://i197.photobucket.com/albums/aa248/aggrievedhistorian/HerodotusWorldMap.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><a href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/maps/ss/mapsindex_2.htm"></a><br />Map Showing Herodotus' View of the Ancient World<br />Clipart.com<br /><br />Geographic entities mentioned in ancient history do not correspond well with those in a modern atlas: A map of Rome (or the Roman Empire) includes much of what we think of as Europe, parts of Asia, and Northern Africa; the geographic borders of Asia fluctuated with the dominant empires; Sudan and Egypt belong in both the Neareast and Africa.<br /><br /><br /><br />The map above shows how the 5th Century B.C. "father of history" Herodotus viewed the world. He describes it in the <a href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_text_herodotus_4.htm">4th book of his histories</a>. However odd his map may look, it was an improvement. The following passage explains his advances on <a href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/maps/ss/mapsindex_7.htm">earlier maps</a> showing 3 continents, Europe, Asia, and Libya:<br />I wonder then at those who have parted off and divided the world into Libya, Asia, and Europe, since the difference between these is not small; for in length Europe extends along by both, while in breadth it is clear to me that it is beyond comparison larger; for Libya furnishes proofs about itself that it is surrounded by sea, except so much of it as borders upon Asia....<br /><a href="http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_maps_index.htm">Ancient Atlas A to Z</a>Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-22062324845110176342007-06-01T17:20:00.001-04:002007-06-01T21:48:26.791-04:00History of PhoeniciansPhonecians share African and Middle Eastern histories.Maps display proximity of the two.<br /><br />Results<br />1 - 10 of about 1,280 for <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7wrjWBGbHoAr09XNyoA/SIG=12mrb16ai/EXP=1180819115/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=ancient">ancient</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7wrjWBGbHoAsE9XNyoA/SIG=12m89ebvl/EXP=1180819115/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=history">history</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7wrjWBGbHoAsU9XNyoA/SIG=12q6ta7s9/EXP=1180819115/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=phoenicians">phoenicians</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7wrjWBGbHoAsk9XNyoA/SIG=12i949bci/EXP=1180819115/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=and">and</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7wrjWBGbHoAs09XNyoA/SIG=12p3a6phq/EXP=1180819115/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=myceaneans">myceaneans</a> - 0.39 sec. 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Magazine on the bones of ancient Phoenicians and living people from Lebanon ... to the Persians best informed in history, the Phoenicians began the quarrel. ...en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicians - 88k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAdYVXNyoA/SIG=176785b0a/EXP=1180819258/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=ieas-tb&u=en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicians&w=ancient+history+phoenicians&d=NHgUfurnO3o6&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAdoVXNyoA/SIG=14hf1tlc9/EXP=1180819258/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=en.wikipedia.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAd4VXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2dGY3c2NpBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNQRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12ecria64/EXP=1180819258/**http://www.einfoweb.com/mesopotamia/phoenicians/index.html">Phoenician Ancient Civilization History</a><br />Information on Phoenicians of ancient Mesopotamia and Tyre, Sidon, Lebanon, ... The Phoenicians were the most famous traders during the ancient world.Here's a ...www.einfoweb.com/mesopotamia/phoenicians/index.html - 17k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAeIVXNyoA/SIG=17obst5sa/EXP=1180819258/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.einfoweb.com/mesopotamia/phoenicians/index.html&w=ancient+history+phoenicians&d=XjtKjOrnOusN&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> -<br /><a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAeYVXNyoA/SIG=14hv3891n/EXP=1180819258/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.einfoweb.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAeoVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2MzVpcDEyBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNgRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=11qo78jph/EXP=1180819258/**http://www.lgic.org/en/phoenicians.php">Phoenicians, Phoenix legend, history</a><br />Canaanites/Phoenicians are the ancient People of Lebanon who navigated the Mediterranean, invented the Alphabet and built Kings David and Solomon Palaces and Temple.www.lgic.org/en/phoenicians.php - 27k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAe4VXNyoA/SIG=174q5adsr/EXP=1180819258/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.lgic.org/en/phoenicians.php&w=ancient+history+phoenicians&d=Bnvyi-rnO1s_&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAfIVXNyoA/SIG=14dn0nmb2/EXP=1180819258/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.lgic.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAfYVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2c2s2aXNyBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNwRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12cbedj9p/EXP=1180819258/**http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/430phoenicia.html">Ancient History Sourcebook: Herodotus: Hellenes & Phoenicians, c. 430 BCE</a><br />As written by Herodotus. ... The Phoenicians, who had formerly dwelt on the shores of the ... This text is part of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook. ...www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/430phoenicia.html - 5k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAfoVXNyoA/SIG=17mijdoln/EXP=1180819258/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/430phoenicia.html&w=ancient+history+phoenicians&amp;amp;amp;amp;d=GA_4oOrnOpoO&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAf4VXNyoA/SIG=14g5ah6ik/EXP=1180819258/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.fordham.edu">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAgIVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2Z3VkNDd2BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDOARjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12o3u4h0u/EXP=1180819258/**http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/westasia/history/phoenicians.htm">Phoenicians - History for Kids!</a><br />After a long siege, he captured Tyre, and the Phoenicians became part of his empire. ... Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture, by William H. Stiebing (2002) ...www.historyforkids.org/learn/westasia/history/phoenicians.htm - 18k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAgYVXNyoA/SIG=182u8rep1/EXP=1180819258/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.historyforkids.org/learn/westasia/history/phoenicians.htm&w=ancient+history+phoenicians&d=GHjt6ernOy-r&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAgoVXNyoA/SIG=14n73lmsg/EXP=1180819258/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.historyforkids.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAg4VXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2cnE3dGQ4BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDOQRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=11deaorru/EXP=1180819258/**http://www.phoenicia.org/">Phoenician Encyclopedia: A Bequest Unearthed, Phoenicia and the ...</a><br />The largest, comprehensive comilation of studies about the Phoenicians, Punic, Canaanites. ... Lebanon, A Brief History, Eastern Christians are living ...www.phoenicia.org - 119k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAhIVXNyoA/SIG=16ncp1v76/EXP=1180819258/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.phoenicia.org/&w=ancient+history+phoenicians&d=NHgUfurnO37H&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAhYVXNyoA/SIG=14icckitc/EXP=1180819258/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.phoenicia.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAhoVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwN2h1cm5sBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTAEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12v8lu3k8/EXP=1180819258/**http://www.amazon.com/Spain-Dawn-History-Iberians-Phoenicians/dp/0500021112">Amazon.com: Spain at the Dawn of History: Iberians, Phoenicians and ...</a><br />Amazon.com: Spain at the Dawn of History: Iberians, Phoenicians and Greeks (Ancient Peoples and Places): Books: Richard J. 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Harrisonwww.amazon.com/Spain-Dawn-History-Iberians-<br />Phoenicians/dp/0500021112 - 100k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAh4VXNyoA/SIG=18fkip9c6/EXP=1180819258/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0500021112/ref%3Dnosim/librarything08-20&w=ancient+history+phoenicians&d=Akl3oernO1hY&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.G6jWBGuEQAiIVXNyoA/SIG=14f804hk6/EXP=1180819258/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.amazon.com">More from this site</a><br />Results<br />11 - 20 of about 322,000 for <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9WAjmBGLv8AcVxXNyoA/SIG=12m4i4501/EXP=1180819456/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=ancient">ancient</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9WAjmBGLv8AclxXNyoA/SIG=12mo2hf49/EXP=1180819456/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=history">history</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9WAjmBGLv8Ac1xXNyoA/SIG=12htsduq0/EXP=1180819456/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=of">of</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9WAjmBGLv8AdFxXNyoA/SIG=12q07402t/EXP=1180819456/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=phoenicians">phoenicians</a> - 0.14 sec. 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The Phoenicians are known as the "carriers of civilization" by spreading their ...www.einfoweb.com/mesopotamia/phoenicians/ainfo.html - 19k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9WAjmBGLv8AhVxXNyoA/SIG=17q5o32rr/EXP=1180819456/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=slv8-msgr&u=www.einfoweb.com/mesopotamia/phoenicians/ainfo.html&w=ancient+history+phoenicians&d=H1gaSernOufj&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9WAjmBGLv8AhlxXNyoA/SIG=14jn43jkg/EXP=1180819456/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=www.einfoweb.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9WAjmBGLv8Ah1xXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwbHJxc3FxBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTYEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=1l6rmiv4v/EXP=1180819456/**http://rdre1.yahoo.com/click?u=http://na.link.decdna.net/n/10656/19474/www.smarter.com/3ced83b900250300000000040002c037154cfea30000000000000000000000000000000100/i/c%3F0%26pq%3D%252fthe%255fphoenicians%255fin%255fhistory%255fand%255flegend%252d%252d%252dpd%252d%252dch%252d1%252d%252dpi%252d1302848%252ehtml%253fsource%253dinktomi%255fplpcp%255f1%252e2118%252d1302848&y=04A408399003D067DC&amp;amp;amp;i=482&c=23488&q=02%5ESSHPM%5BL7%7Eq%7Cvzqk%3Fwvlkpmf%3Fpy%3Fowpzqv%7Cv%7Eql6&e=utf-8&r=15&d=wow%7EYHOO-en-us&n=0PQ4K1GRGLG4DEHA&s=12&amp;amp;amp;t=&m=46608E80&x=051DD2BB756D91FB710CAEC8557D05A9E8">The Phoenicians in History and Legend Smarter.com Books</a><br />Find the lowest price for The Phoenicians in History and Legend Author: Anthony Strong - (Hardcover), ISBN 1403380340. 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Phoenicians lived and prospered on the Mediterranean coast north of Palestine. ... Phoenicians also used papyrus from Egypt to make scrolls, or rolls of ...home.cfl.rr.com/crossland/.../Phoenicians/phoenicians.html - 20k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9WAjmBGLv8Ak1xXNyoA/SIG=19c43du2m/EXP=1180819456/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=slv8-msgr&u=home.cfl.rr.com/crossland/AncientCivilizations/Middle_East_Civilizations/Phoenicians/phoenicians.html&w=ancient+history+phoenicians&d=Blj9eurnOuHZ&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9WAjmBGLv8AlFxXNyoA/SIG=14iv57lf8/EXP=1180819456/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+history+of+phoenicians&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=home.cfl.rr.com">More from this site</a>Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-49157808420760515712007-06-01T17:11:00.001-04:002007-06-01T20:34:05.283-04:00Ancient Sailing VesselsSearch Results<br />1 - 10 of about 43,400 for <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEAyCpXNyoA/SIG=12l88gd9l/EXP=1180818566/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=photos">photos</a> + <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEAySpXNyoA/SIG=12m8v4468/EXP=1180818566/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=ancient">ancient</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEAyipXNyoA/SIG=12m497tl1/EXP=1180818566/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=african">african</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEAyypXNyoA/SIG=12mtm2f59/EXP=1180818566/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=sailing">sailing</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEAzCpXNyoA/SIG=12msidqq6/EXP=1180818566/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=vessels">vessels</a> - 0.20 sec. 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ANCIENT AMERICAN * ISSUE #30 ... the Phoenicians, who used North African ports for their commercially secret, ...www.ancientamerican.com/article30p4.htm - 14k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEAzipXNyoA/SIG=18jsgqh19/EXP=1180818566/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=photos%2B+ancient+african+sailing+vessels&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.ancientamerican.com/article30p4.htm&w=photos+ancient+african+sailing+vessels+vessel&d=MmPdVernOpoO&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEAzypXNyoA/SIG=157vtllgt/EXP=1180818566/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=photos%2B+ancient+african+sailing+vessels&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.ancientamerican.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEA0CpXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2cGpzZHNxBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMgRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=13b979bo2/EXP=1180818566/**http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/photogalleries/africa_faces/photo6.html">National Geographic News Photo Gallery: Faces of Africa: Photo Gallery One</a><br />African Bushmen Tour U.S. to Fund Fight for Land. 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Ancient Maya Tomb Found: Upright Skeleton, ...news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/.../africa_faces/photo6.html - 23k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEA0SpXNyoA/SIG=19sblbnah/EXP=1180818566/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=photos%2B+ancient+african+sailing+vessels&fr=ieas-tb&u=news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/photogalleries/africa_faces/photo6.html&w=photos+ancient+african+sailing+vessels+vessel&d=Y1AsJurnO0eg&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEA0ipXNyoA/SIG=15btjnnsp/EXP=1180818566/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=photos%2B+ancient+african+sailing+vessels&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=news.nationalgeographic.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEA0ypXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2ZHEzZ2FsBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMwRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12k74pg6a/EXP=1180818566/**http://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/ww2-pictures/">Pictures of African Americans during WWII - Pictures of African ...</a><br />... between the columns (Doric) of an ancient Greek temple of Neptune, built about ... newly arrived, line the rail of their vessel as it pulls into port of Greenock, ...www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/ww2-pictures - 124k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEA1CpXNyoA/SIG=195k5iaog/EXP=1180818566/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=photos%2B+ancient+african+sailing+vessels&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/ww2-pictures/&w=photos+ancient+african+sailing+vessels+vessel&d=VVVZ7urnO3Tm&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEA1SpXNyoA/SIG=1504ouvc6/EXP=1180818566/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=photos%2B+ancient+african+sailing+vessels&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.archives.gov">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEA1ipXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2Z2VtZDE4BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNARjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12888lto5/EXP=1180818566/**http://www.africanamericans.com/WorldWarIIPhotos.htm">African Americans World War II Photos</a><br />... between the columns (Doric) of an ancient Greek temple of Neptune, built about ... newly arrived, line the rail of their vessel as it pulls into port of Greenock, ...www.africanamericans.com/WorldWarIIPhotos.htm - 211k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEA1ypXNyoA/SIG=18p8i9smu/EXP=1180818566/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=photos%2B+ancient+african+sailing+vessels&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.africanamericans.com/WorldWarIIPhotos.htm&w=photos+ancient+african+sailing+vessels+vessel&d=NiOKpernOw60&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEA2CpXNyoA/SIG=1582sqtc5/EXP=1180818566/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=photos%2B+ancient+african+sailing+vessels&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.africanamericans.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEA2SpXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2dGY3c2NpBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNQRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=11jhi2j6t/EXP=1180818566/**http://www.photosource.com/2869">John Hindmarsh's Photo Listings Page</a><br />... amusing, anarchy, anatomical, anatomy, anchorage, ancient, ancillary, anemone, ... vessel, vessels, viaduct, victoria, victorian, view, viewpoint, views, vile, ...www.photosource.com/2869 - 44k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEA2ipXNyoA/SIG=184s4hme1/EXP=1180818566/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=photos%2B+ancient+african+sailing+vessels&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.photosource.com/2869&w=photos+ancient+african+sailing+vessels+vessel&d=Uq8TzernO2bk&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEA2ypXNyoA/SIG=1530rj5iq/EXP=1180818566/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=photos%2B+ancient+african+sailing+vessels&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.photosource.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.8Gi2BGmAEA3CpXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2MzVpcDEyBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNgRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=11jerkl2v/EXP=1180818566/**http://www.photosource.com/1888">Philip Baird's Photo Listings Page</a><br />... sites, historic places, historic photos, historic monuments, worldwide travel ... 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PHOTOS. MAGAZINE. SPECIALS. Sailing in History's Wake. Monday, Sep. 01, 2003 By JAMIE JAMES ...www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,480337,00.html - 42k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5mqi2BGDocAeCxXNyoA/SIG=19ipnbd62/EXP=1180818730/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=photos%2B+ancient+african+sailing+vessels&fr=slv8-msgr&u=www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C480337%2C00.html&w=photos+ancient+african+sailing+vessels+vessel&d=QCRAmurnO2iK&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5mqi2BGDocAeSxXNyoA/SIG=14uftdkup/EXP=1180818730/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=photos%2B+ancient+african+sailing+vessels&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=www.time.com">More from this site</a><br /><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBLtZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwcTY3bjRtBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjIEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12af498s5/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//www.dreamstime.com/sailingtothesun-image2336846">Stock Photo: Sailing to the sun</a><br />Vector illustration of two ancient ships sailing into the sunset ... sunrise sunset travel tropical vacation vector vessel vintage warriors warship ...www.dreamstime.com/sailingtothesun-image2336846 - 95k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBL9ZXNyoA/SIG=18tub2g36/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.dreamstime.com/sailingtothesun-image2336846%26w=photos%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%2bvessel%26d=CIt9GurnO2rT%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBMNZXNyoA/SIG=15495d1tj/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.dreamstime.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBMdZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwNm8wanFuBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjMEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=120rdh2hb/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//www.jhu.edu/%7Ejhumag/0497web/bass.html">Johns Hopkins Magazine -- April 1997</a><br />Not one painting portrayed a Mycenaean vessel. ... found logs of African blackwood, called ebony by ancient Egyptians, the type of ...www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0497web/bass.html - 35k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBMtZXNyoA/SIG=18nd3qblh/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.jhu.edu/%257Ejhumag/0497web/bass.html%26w=photos%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%2bvessel%26d=c_5lHurnOufj%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBM9ZXNyoA/SIG=14t544g82/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.jhu.edu">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBNNZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwZWEzMnRuBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjQEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=127j7th98/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//goafrica.about.com/od/egypt/a/toursegypt.htm">Tours to Egypt</a><br />... Interest Photos and Travelogues Health and Safety African Safari ... tours that include a cruise down the Nile in one these ancient sailing vessels. ...goafrica.about.com/od/egypt/a/toursegypt.htm - 29k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBNdZXNyoA/SIG=18qptarpq/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=goafrica.about.com/od/egypt/a/toursegypt.htm%26w=photos%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%2bvessel%26d=crFLsurnO3p4%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBNtZXNyoA/SIG=1548eucjo/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=goafrica.about.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBN9ZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwNmdqZDV0BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjUEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12vmi6rb4/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//www.mdisfun.org/resources/african%2520heritage%25202006%25201-32.pdf">DEAR TRAVELER:</a> (PDF)<br />the fabric of African-American cultural history as well as its future. ... which captured slave trading vessels and was responsible for freeing more than 700 ...www.mdisfun.org/resources/african heritage 2006 1-32.pdf - 776k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBONZXNyoA/SIG=19og7hi9s/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.mdisfun.org/resources/african%252520heritage%2525202006%2525201-32.pdf%26w=photos%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%2bvessel%26d=BXobQ-rnO1mE%26icp=1%26.intl=us">View as html</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBOdZXNyoA/SIG=151ovobs6/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.mdisfun.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBOtZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwcHBmZmdqBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjYEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=13p5mu0vf/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//www.col-ed.org/family/joan_ralph_photos/Caribbean_2006/ports%2520of%2520call/page_barbados.htm">barb_ports of call.htm</a><br />... however, a more flamboyant African sway also pervades local life ... Yet Barbados' genesis lay in the ancient seabed and more recent coral beds being ...col-ed.org/family/.../Caribbean_2006/ports of call/page_barbados.htm - 102k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBO9ZXNyoA/SIG=1agu1ca17/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.col-ed.org/family/joan_ralph_photos/Caribbean_2006/ports%252520of%252520call/page_barbados.htm%26w=photos%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%2bvessel%26d=WzwcRernOq90%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBPNZXNyoA/SIG=15066s4qs/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.col-ed.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBPdZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwa3RsNGg0BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjcEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=11qqhpqig/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road">Silk Road - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</a><br />... an interconnected series of ancient trade routes through various ... Poems (with photos) of the Chinese Silk Road. Miami University Silk Road Project ...<br />Quick Links: <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBPtZXNyoA/SIG=12302no1v/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road%23Routes">Routes</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBP9ZXNyoA/SIG=121nq7s3n/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road%23Road">Road</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBQNZXNyoA/SIG=124ei1isu/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road%23Railway">Railway</a> en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road - 131k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBQdZXNyoA/SIG=18dj00qoc/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road%26w=photos%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%2bvessel%26d=G4O0BurnO3lA%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBQtZXNyoA/SIG=152nlfdrg/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=en.wikipedia.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBQ9ZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwNjRqNGc3BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjgEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12f9oku8p/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//library.stanford.edu/africa/history/hiscolonial.html">African History on the Internet - Colonial Period</a><br />... holds African sculpture, textiles, graphic arts, objects from Ancient Egypt, money. ... Tayler, Jeffrey, "Vessel of Last Resort" ...library.stanford.edu/africa/history/hiscolonial.html - 128k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBRNZXNyoA/SIG=192c9l83m/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=library.stanford.edu/africa/history/hiscolonial.html%26w=photos%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%2bvessel%26d=Ldx2BurnOuwZ%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBRdZXNyoA/SIG=156gmcorq/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=library.stanford.edu">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBRtZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwdmk0Z2l1BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjkEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12bmdrnpo/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//www.dreamstime.com/sailingtothesun2-image2344602">Stock Photo: Sailing to the sun 2</a><br />Vector illustration of ancient ship sailing into the sunset ... sunrise sunset travel tropical vacation vector vessel vintage warriors warship water waves wind ...www.dreamstime.com/sailingtothesun2-image2344602 - 94k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBR9ZXNyoA/SIG=18u77jt77/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.dreamstime.com/sailingtothesun2-image2344602%26w=photos%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%2bvessel%26d=H3qVOernO3LV%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBSNZXNyoA/SIG=15495d1tj/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.dreamstime.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBSdZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwZWZoaTF1BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMzAEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=11tkmdfg2/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//www.earthballoon.com/history_w.htm">Earth Awareness Educational Resources - American History</a><br />The Ancient City of Athens - A photographic archive of the archaeological and ... cover academic topics, history of sailing vessels, and even Viking re-enactors ...www.earthballoon.com/history_w.htm - 14k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBStZXNyoA/SIG=18g34s1in/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.earthballoon.com/history_w.htm%26w=photos%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%2bvessel%26d=YX8w5urnOw8q%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5JMjGBGoSYBS9ZXNyoA/SIG=1566o2etj/EXP=1180818892/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=photos%252B%2bancient%2bafrican%2bsailing%2bvessels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.earthballoon.com">More from this site</a>Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-45919593914460983662007-06-01T16:56:00.000-04:002007-06-01T17:08:21.604-04:00History - black africans- shipbuilding- maritimeResults<br />1 - 10 of about 586 for <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAtc1XNyoA/SIG=12mim5fmt/EXP=1180818038/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=ancient">ancient</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAts1XNyoA/SIG=12njobc9a/EXP=1180818038/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=africans">africans</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAt81XNyoA/SIG=12rgbvual/EXP=1180818038/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=shipbuilding">shipbuilding</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAuM1XNyoA/SIG=12islojnh/EXP=1180818038/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=and">and</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAuc1XNyoA/SIG=12kncug1i/EXP=1180818038/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=ocean">ocean</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAus1XNyoA/SIG=12mthap7e/EXP=1180818038/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=travels">travels</a> - 0.41 sec. (<a href="http://help.yahoo.com/help/us/ysearch/basics/basics-03.html">About this page</a>)<br />WEB RESULTS<br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAu81XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2bWJzNWI1BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMQRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12kuega0b/EXP=1180818038/**http://www.raceandhistory.com/historicalviews/ancientamerica.htm">RaceandHistory.com - BLACK CIVILIZATIONS OF ANCIENT AMERICA</a><br />... evidence of their ancient dependance on the sea for travel and exploration as ... ancient times, trade between Africans in Africa and those in the Indian Ocean, ...www.raceandhistory.com/historicalviews/ancientamerica.htm - 62k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAvM1XNyoA/SIG=19gq31q2e/EXP=1180818038/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+and+ocean+travels&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.raceandhistory.com/historicalviews/ancientamerica.htm&w=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+ocean+travels+travel&d=XJQzYernOuvc&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAvc1XNyoA/SIG=15c9t7hss/EXP=1180818038/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+and+ocean+travels&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.raceandhistory.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAvs1XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2cGpzZHNxBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMgRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12kvvdshb/EXP=1180818038/**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Indian_Ocean_Islands">Culture of the Indian Ocean Islands - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</a><br />... La Bourdonnais established Port Louis as a naval base and a shipbuilding centre. ... supplemented by influxes of Africans, Chinese, Malays, and Indians gave ...<br />Quick Links: <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAv81XNyoA/SIG=134vv8d1e/EXP=1180818038/**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Indian_Ocean_Islands#Early_history">Early history</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAwM1XNyoA/SIG=131d3o89h/EXP=1180818038/**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Indian_Ocean_Islands#Madagascar">Madagascar</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAwc1XNyoA/SIG=12uscffeq/EXP=1180818038/**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Indian_Ocean_Islands#Comoros">Comoros</a> en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Indian_Ocean_Islands - 88k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAws1XNyoA/SIG=19godaap6/EXP=1180818038/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+and+ocean+travels&fr=ieas-tb&u=en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Indian_Ocean_Islands&w=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+ocean+travels+travel&d=XC7pQOrnO28K&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAw81XNyoA/SIG=156vu6d18/EXP=1180818038/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+and+ocean+travels&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=en.wikipedia.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAxM1XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2ZHEzZ2FsBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMwRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12kqlq67d/EXP=1180818038/**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_trans-oceanic_contact">Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</a><br />... in the 15th century, after key advances in Old World shipbuilding and navigation. ... were able to cross the Indian Ocean and large sections of the Pacific by ...<br />Quick Links: <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAxc1XNyoA/SIG=12vrq3gt6/EXP=1180818038/**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_trans-oceanic_contact#Overview">Overview</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAxs1XNyoA/SIG=138m0g7hm/EXP=1180818038/**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_trans-oceanic_contact#Diffusionist_view">Diffusionist view</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAx81XNyoA/SIG=1381abptt/EXP=1180818038/**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_trans-oceanic_contact#Isolationist_view">Isolationist view</a> en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_trans-oceanic_contact - 138k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAyM1XNyoA/SIG=19g7m1vfl/EXP=1180818038/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+and+ocean+travels&fr=ieas-tb&u=en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_trans-oceanic_contact&w=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+ocean+travels+travel&d=fbHZaernO3Ft&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAyc1XNyoA/SIG=156vu6d18/EXP=1180818038/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+and+ocean+travels&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=en.wikipedia.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAys1XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2Z2VtZDE4BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNARjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=128eb1efv/EXP=1180818038/**http://www.blackissue.com/black_civilizations_of.htm">BLACK CIVILIZATIONS OF ancient america</a><br />... evidence of their ancient dependance on the sea for travel and exploration as ... ancient times, trade between Africans in Africa and those in the Indian Ocean, ...www.blackissue.com/black_civilizations_of.htm - 64k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAy81XNyoA/SIG=194kfjqgo/EXP=1180818038/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+and+ocean+travels&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.blackissue.com/black_civilizations_of.htm&w=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+ocean+travels+travel&d=ZHCDKOrnOxH6&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAzM1XNyoA/SIG=158q15d3n/EXP=1180818038/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+and+ocean+travels&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.blackissue.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAzc1XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2dGY3c2NpBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNQRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12jidq1oj/EXP=1180818038/**http://hs.riverdale.k12.or.us/~hfinnert/exhib_04/joelr/how.html">webpage</a><br />That ocean has been crossed by both ancient and modern people on rafts, and more ... to the north, Asians to the east, and Africans to their south and west. ...hs.riverdale.k12.or.us/~hfinnert/exhib_04/joelr/how.html - 11k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAzs1XNyoA/SIG=19jah6eb1/EXP=1180818038/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+and+ocean+travels&fr=ieas-tb&u=hs.riverdale.k12.or.us/%7Ehfinnert/exhib_04/joelr/how.html&w=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+ocean+travels+travel&d=UvC86OrnOvqY&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MAz81XNyoA/SIG=15c3bqpm2/EXP=1180818038/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+and+ocean+travels&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=hs.riverdale.k12.or.us">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MA0M1XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2MzVpcDEyBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNgRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12gmv2nds/EXP=1180818038/**http://yementimes.com/article.shtml?i=894&p=report&a=1">Book Review: The Phantom Voyagers - Yemen Times</a><br />... the ocean, particularly the monsoon winds, and refined shipbuilding techniques. ... between East Africa and the kingdoms of the ancient civilizations of the world ...yementimes.com/article.shtml?i=894&p=report&a=1 - 32k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MA0c1XNyoA/SIG=19u45m6qt/EXP=1180818038/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+and+ocean+travels&fr=ieas-tb&u=yementimes.com/article.shtml%3Fi%3D894%26p%3Dreport%26a%3D1&w=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+ocean+travels+travel&d=PbaHqOrnO2TV&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MA0s1XNyoA/SIG=1546ong79/EXP=1180818038/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+and+ocean+travels&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=yementimes.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MA081XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2c2s2aXNyBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNwRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=11j1bflpc/EXP=1180818038/**http://pages.prodigy.net/jkess3">LIBERIAN CENTER</a><br />If you still live in the ancient world of the web, your browser does ... for the cessation of land had been consummated between the ACS and the Africans. ...pages.prodigy.net/jkess3 - 345k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MA1M1XNyoA/SIG=157v2h2dn/EXP=1180818038/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+and+ocean+travels&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=pages.prodigy.net">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MA1c1XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2Z3VkNDd2BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDOARjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12up15hge/EXP=1180818038/**http://www.thevincentian.com/forum/forum_posts.asp?TID=97&PN=1&TPN=3">The Vincentian Forums: Ancient African culture...and musings</a><br />... resemble Black Africans from the Ghana area, but the ancient religious practices ... evidence of their ancient dependance on the sea for travel and exploration as ...www.thevincentian.com/forum/forum_posts.asp?TID=97&PN=1&TPN=3 - 145k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu7P2iGBG86MA1s1XNyoA/SIG=1acc9eh46/EXP=1180818038/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+and+ocean+travels&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.thevincentian.com/forum/forum_posts.asp%3FTID%3D97%26PN%3D1%26TPN%3D3&w=ancient+africans+shipbuilding+ocean+travels+travel&d=RYUv2urnOw6d&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - 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(<a href="http://help.yahoo.com/help/us/ysearch/basics/basics-03.html">About this page</a>)<br />WEB RESULTS<br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu5WJiWBGMHUBAl9XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwbHM1NjU2BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTEEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=132thdan3/EXP=1180818185/**http://www.trader-china.com/ancient-china/chinese-culture/chinese-admiral.html">Zheng He, chinese culture, chinese admiral, chinese admiral in chinese ...</a><br />Zheng He of chinese admiral, chinese culture, ancient chinese culture. ... 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That ocean has been crossed by both ancient and modern people on rafts, and more ...hs.riverdale.k12.or.us/~hfinnert/exhib_04/joelr/paper.html - 24k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BCV5XNyoA/SIG=19piig9qu/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2band%2bocean%2btravels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=hs.riverdale.k12.or.us/%25257Ehfinnert/exhib_04/joelr/paper.html%26w=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2bocean%2btravels%2btravel%26d=GygruurnOz12%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BCl5XNyoA/SIG=15ea9ijdj/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2band%2bocean%2btravels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=hs.riverdale.k12.or.us">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BC15XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwcTY3bjRtBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjIEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=123h58fg6/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//www.doe.state.la.us/LDE/uploads/5063.pdf">Grade 5 Social Studies</a> (PDF)<br />... to imagine that they are able to travel in time to these ancient cultures. 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Early Travels and Trade ... it, and he was told by the Africans that it ...nabataea.net/mhistroy.html - 35k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BEl5XNyoA/SIG=18jgna6lc/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2band%2bocean%2btravels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=nabataea.net/mhistroy.html%26w=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2bocean%2btravels%2btravel%26d=dg9tk-rnO2D7%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BE15XNyoA/SIG=154liub65/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2band%2bocean%2btravels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=nabataea.net">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BFF5XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwNmdqZDV0BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjUEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12g36ir2c/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//www.muslimhiphop.com/forum/index.php%3fshowtopic=1519">Zheng He a Muslim mariner and explorer came America bemore christopher ...</a><br />... the people they trade among the people like the Chinese Africans and Arabs. ... same way: "In Fourteen Hundred and Ninety Two, Columbus Sailed the Ocean Blue. ...www.muslimhiphop.com/forum/index.php?showtopic=1519 - 172k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BFV5XNyoA/SIG=19kcl7ktr/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2band%2bocean%2btravels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.muslimhiphop.com/forum/index.php%253Fshowtopic%253D1519%26w=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2bocean%2btravels%2btravel%26d=FjaAH-rnO3XF%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BFl5XNyoA/SIG=15chf1k0r/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2band%2bocean%2btravels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.muslimhiphop.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BF15XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwcHBmZmdqBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjYEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=11pr1tfnl/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//www.ahtg.net/TpA/safr2001.html">South Africa 2001</a><br />... which blow from over the Indian Ocean and bring about 890 mm of precipitation ... is distinctive, deriving from an ancient and rich oral tradition. ...www.ahtg.net/TpA/safr2001.html - 71k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BGF5XNyoA/SIG=18n8o0aep/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2band%2bocean%2btravels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.ahtg.net/TpA/safr2001.html%26w=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2bocean%2btravels%2btravel%26d=IenRLurnO2iV%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BGV5XNyoA/SIG=154e9e06l/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2band%2bocean%2btravels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.ahtg.net">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BGl5XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwa3RsNGg0BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjcEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12p7oivqd/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//www.njcu.edu/programs/academicforum/9-1/educationaltravel.html">Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Techinology</a><br />Many of the traditions and customs of ancient times are still practiced today. ... The education and travel seminar provided the group with the opportunity to ...www.njcu.edu/programs/academicforum/9-1/educationaltravel.html - 16k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BG15XNyoA/SIG=19nn6u43b/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2band%2bocean%2btravels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.njcu.edu/programs/academicforum/9-1/educationaltravel.html%26w=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2bocean%2btravels%2btravel%26d=QlyP6OrnOq90%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BHF5XNyoA/SIG=1545s772n/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2band%2bocean%2btravels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.njcu.edu">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BHV5XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwNjRqNGc3BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjgEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=124rs33ms/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//www.zimbabwesituation.com/nov15_2005.html">The Zimbabwe Situation</a><br />... the ocean, particularly the monsoon winds, and refined shipbuilding techniques. ... engaged in trading activities with Africans and thereby were in position to ...www.zimbabwesituation.com/nov15_2005.html - 92k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BHl5XNyoA/SIG=192vk42tq/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2band%2bocean%2btravels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.zimbabwesituation.com/nov15_2005.html%26w=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2bocean%2btravels%2btravel%26d=dJUbIernOwNy%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BH15XNyoA/SIG=15hpo8534/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2band%2bocean%2btravels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.zimbabwesituation.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BIF5XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwdmk0Z2l1BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjkEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=11sb1l1ai/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//www.answers.com/topic/exploration">exploration: Definition, Synonyms and Much More from Answers.com</a><br />... ancient treatises about geography and real or fanciful books about travel, ... to cross the Isthmus of Panama and view the Pacific ocean from American shores. ...www.answers.com/topic/exploration - 148k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BIV5XNyoA/SIG=18qvfee0k/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2band%2bocean%2btravels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.answers.com/topic/exploration%26w=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2bocean%2btravels%2btravel%26d=Rr9hk-rnO2ph%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BIl5XNyoA/SIG=157rns4nh/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=ancient%2bafricans%2bshipbuilding%2band%2bocean%2btravels%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.answers.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu40zimBG2Q8BI15XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwZWZoaTF1BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMzAEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12mouhri2/EXP=1180818355/**http%3a//ccas.georgetown.edu/files/CCAS_Tapestry_of_Travel_lores.pdf">THE ARAB WORLD</a> (PDF)<br />Chinese, Africans, and Arabs all played a part in the ... reports of their travels, and some of ... tion and the translation of ancient scholarly texts. ...ccas.georgetown.edu/files/CCAS_Tapestry_of_Travel_lores.pdf - 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0.39 sec. (<a href="http://help.yahoo.com/help/us/ysearch/basics/basics-03.html">About this page</a>)<br />WEB RESULTS<br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBkI1XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2bWJzNWI1BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMQRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12kplt4v7/EXP=1180817678/**http://www.raceandhistory.com/historicalviews/ancientamerica.htm">RaceandHistory.com - BLACK CIVILIZATIONS OF ANCIENT AMERICA</a><br />... resemble Black Africans from the Ghana area, but the ancient religious ... as lengthy as taking a ship from Cape Verde, sailing it across the Atlantic and ...www.raceandhistory.com/historicalviews/ancientamerica.htm - 62k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBkY1XNyoA/SIG=1afj3p03p/EXP=1180817678/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.raceandhistory.com/historicalviews/ancientamerica.htm&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=XJQzYernOuvc&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBko1XNyoA/SIG=15qou47jg/EXP=1180817678/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.raceandhistory.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBk41XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2cGpzZHNxBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMgRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=1287eecgu/EXP=1180817678/**http://www.blackissue.com/black_civilizations_of.htm">BLACK CIVILIZATIONS OF ancient america</a><br />... resemble Black Africans from the Ghana area, but the ancient religious ... as lengthy as taking a ship from Cape Verde, sailing it across the Atlantic and ...www.blackissue.com/black_civilizations_of.htm - 64k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBlI1XNyoA/SIG=1a3pcljrb/EXP=1180817678/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.blackissue.com/black_civilizations_of.htm&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=ZHCDKOrnOxH6&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBlY1XNyoA/SIG=15mtl833f/EXP=1180817678/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.blackissue.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBlo1XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2ZHEzZ2FsBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMwRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=11rgmobv8/EXP=1180817678/**http://www.essaysbyekowa.com/olmecs.htm">The Olmecs</a><br />... West Africans (Formorians, Black giants who occupied Ireland in ancient times) ... Black Caribb of the late 18th Century and their 40-foot double masted sailing ...www.essaysbyekowa.com/olmecs.htm - 44k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBl41XNyoA/SIG=19miugmis/EXP=1180817678/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.essaysbyekowa.com/olmecs.htm&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=YdKEU-rnOrmh&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBmI1XNyoA/SIG=15pbfv9pq/EXP=1180817678/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.essaysbyekowa.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBmY1XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2Z2VtZDE4BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNARjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12gs9tvl5/EXP=1180817678/**http://beatl.barnard.columbia.edu/maritime/2003/biblio1.html">Working Print Bibliography</a><br />The Sea in the Ancient and Medieval World ... John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400 ...beatl.barnard.columbia.edu/maritime/2003/biblio1.html - 25k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBmo1XNyoA/SIG=1abmegco0/EXP=1180817678/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&u=beatl.barnard.columbia.edu/maritime/2003/biblio1.html&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=WjkYhurnOrVA&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBm41XNyoA/SIG=15uvs9pdi/EXP=1180817678/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=beatl.barnard.columbia.edu">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBnI1XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2dGY3c2NpBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNQRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=1274nhjjf/EXP=1180817678/**http://www.history-world.org/ancient_mauritania.htm">Ancient Mauritania</a><br />... round Libya was, he said, because the ship stopped, and would no go any further. ... and multitudes of apes, of which Poseidonius relates that when he was sailing ...www.history-world.org/ancient_mauritania.htm - 55k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBnY1XNyoA/SIG=1a2pjqcuq/EXP=1180817678/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.history-world.org/ancient_mauritania.htm&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=XKsz2-rnOzEc&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBno1XNyoA/SIG=15p5c6dkd/EXP=1180817678/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.history-world.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBn41XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2MzVpcDEyBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNgRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12u0bhf7i/EXP=1180817678/**http://www.thevincentian.com/forum/forum_posts.asp?TID=97&PN=1&TPN=3">The Vincentian Forums: Ancient African culture...and musings</a><br />... resemble Black Africans from the Ghana area, but the ancient religious practices ... as taking a ship from Cape Verde, sailing it across the Atlantic ...www.thevincentian.com/forum/forum_posts.asp?TID=97&PN=1&TPN=3 - 145k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBoI1XNyoA/SIG=1bb7f43nt/EXP=1180817678/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.thevincentian.com/forum/forum_posts.asp%3FTID%3D97%26PN%3D1%26TPN%3D3&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=RYUv2urnOw6d&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBoY1XNyoA/SIG=15p3o2ij2/EXP=1180817678/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.thevincentian.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBoo1XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2c2s2aXNyBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNwRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=123jvrlv2/EXP=1180817678/**http://www.cindyvallar.com/adultpiratebks2.html">Pirates and Privateers - Books for Adults - Nonfiction</a><br />... lab, and learning center, for this exhibit relates the story of Black Sam ... and overnight encampments, boat and ship building, gift shops and book stores, ...www.cindyvallar.com/adultpiratebks2.html - 99k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBo41XNyoA/SIG=19ujmu6kb/EXP=1180817678/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.cindyvallar.com/adultpiratebks2.html&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=Gzck9OrnO3KR&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBpI1XNyoA/SIG=15n93b6gk/EXP=1180817678/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.cindyvallar.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBpY1XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2Z3VkNDd2BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDOARjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=11sv33625/EXP=1180817678/**http://phoenicia.org/phoeEastAfrica.html">The Phoenician in East Africa</a><br />... other hand, practical boat/ship-building had been around for ... This is nicely underlined by the comparison by Bent of Black Africans/Kaffirs and baboons. ...phoenicia.org/phoeEastAfrica.html - 138k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBpo1XNyoA/SIG=19nvi9goa/EXP=1180817678/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&u=phoenicia.org/phoeEastAfrica.html&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=exWlg-rnO19w&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBp41XNyoA/SIG=15h8koe1f/EXP=1180817678/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=phoenicia.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBqI1XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2cnE3dGQ4BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDOQRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=14fv13dpu/EXP=1180817678/**http://africanamerica.org/eve/ubb.x/a/tpc/f/19370808/m/2041095481?a=tpc&cdra=Y&s=60260642&m=2041095481&f=19370808">BLACK CIVILIZATIONS OF - Topic Powered by eve community</a><br />... resemble Black Africans from the Ghana area, but the ancient religious ... as lengthy as taking a ship from Cape Verde, sailing it across the Atlantic and ...africanamerica.org/eve/ubb.x/a/tpc/f/19370808/m/...&f=19370808 - 116k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBqY1XNyoA/SIG=1d81dlako/EXP=1180817678/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&u=africanamerica.org/eve/ubb.x/a/tpc/f/19370808/m/2041095481%3Fa%3Dtpc%26cdra%3DY%26s%3D60260642%26m%3D2041095481%26f%3D19370808&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&amp;amp;amp;d=MyrDAernO20r&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBqo1XNyoA/SIG=15mr01t8a/EXP=1180817678/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=africanamerica.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBq41XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwN2h1cm5sBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTAEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12baade3j/EXP=1180817678/**http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/anc-nafrica.html">Ancient History Sourcebook: Accounts of Ancient Mauretania, c. 430 BCE ...</a><br />Excerpts from Classical European accounts of what is now the nation of Mauritania.www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/anc-nafrica.html - 50k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBrI1XNyoA/SIG=1a6ddfcim/EXP=1180817678/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/anc-nafrica.html&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=HRjQyernO4Ke&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.iOh2BG4AIBrY1XNyoA/SIG=15jouk0kl/EXP=1180817678/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.fordham.edu">More from this site</a><br /><br /><br /><br />Results<br />11 - 20 of about 870 for <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAtLZXNyoA/SIG=12jonqt45/EXP=1180817870/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=ship">ship</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAtbZXNyoA/SIG=12npbkfos/EXP=1180817870/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=building">building</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAtrZXNyoA/SIG=12i528lpg/EXP=1180817870/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=and">and</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAt7ZXNyoA/SIG=12n0tgrbo/EXP=1180817870/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=maritime">maritime</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAuLZXNyoA/SIG=12m5ivlbr/EXP=1180817870/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=sailing">sailing</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAubZXNyoA/SIG=12me66etr/EXP=1180817870/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=ancient">ancient</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAurZXNyoA/SIG=12k6c0mn7/EXP=1180817870/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=black">black</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAu7ZXNyoA/SIG=12nfkeqe2/EXP=1180817870/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=africans">africans</a> - 0.22 sec. (<a href="http://help.yahoo.com/help/us/ysearch/basics/basics-03.html">About this page</a>)<br />WEB RESULTS<br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAvLZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwbHM1NjU2BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTEEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=11mbiqjv9/EXP=1180817870/**http://www.soundchristian.com/man/">Table of Nations and Genealogy of Mankind</a><br />... discovered art work and various ancient artifacts depicting live dinosaurs ... Jah-hu (Japheth) survived by building a very broad ship and taking on it pairs ...www.soundchristian.com/man - 101k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAvbZXNyoA/SIG=19jkechm7/EXP=1180817870/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=www.soundchristian.com/man/&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=LSgES-rnO3U-&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAvrZXNyoA/SIG=15s01hp84/EXP=1180817870/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=www.soundchristian.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAv7ZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwdDhqbm90BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTIEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=11mga9i9g/EXP=1180817870/**http://blog.myspace.com/anewbyss72">blog.myspace.com/anewbyss72</a><br />... resemble Black Africans from the Ghana area, but the ancient religious practices ... as taking a ship from Cape Verde, sailing it across the Atlantic ...blog.myspace.com/anewbyss72 - 116k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAwLZXNyoA/SIG=19j6la9q7/EXP=1180817870/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=blog.myspace.com/anewbyss72&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=LKVSbOrnO2Ej&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAwbZXNyoA/SIG=15mphtcjh/EXP=1180817870/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=blog.myspace.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAwrZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwMzdyaDU2BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTMEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=129tdfmjg/EXP=1180817870/**http://faculty.washington.edu/jbs/itrans/charge20.htm">THE STRUCTURE OF TRANSPORTATION REVOLUTIONS</a><br />The other innovation in ship building was characterized more by new developments ... and mated them with slender hulls that exploited their remarkable sailing ...faculty.washington.edu/jbs/itrans/charge20.htm - 106k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAw7ZXNyoA/SIG=1a6d445j5/EXP=1180817870/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=faculty.washington.edu/jbs/itrans/charge20.htm&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=MT7LXOrnOu9j&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAxLZXNyoA/SIG=15s3anup9/EXP=1180817870/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=faculty.washington.edu">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAxbZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwZHAyNTE5BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTQEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12acjcajc/EXP=1180817870/**http://www.rlc.dcccd.edu/MATHSCI/anth/g104/kristof.htm">1492: The Prequel</a><br />The boatman drew as close as he could to a narrow black-sand beach, and I splashed ashore. ... reports, trying to track down a legend of an ancient Chinese ...www.rlc.dcccd.edu/MATHSCI/anth/g104/kristof.htm - 28k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAxrZXNyoA/SIG=1a7e22p0i/EXP=1180817870/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=www.rlc.dcccd.edu/MATHSCI/anth/g104/kristof.htm&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=Z1OtAernO0pO&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAx7ZXNyoA/SIG=15nrjdfjj/EXP=1180817870/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=www.rlc.dcccd.edu">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAyLZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwYnE2bjNsBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTUEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12enqkr8a/EXP=1180817870/**http://www.clarence-webpage.com/AfricanArts/bourne001.html">WEST AFRICA & THE SEA IN ANTIQUITY</a><br />... ancient maritime history but discussion will open shortly with non-Africans in west Africa. ... black), so joining the very long list of ancient terms to ...www.clarence-webpage.com/AfricanArts/bourne001.html - 215k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAybZXNyoA/SIG=1abthou2k/EXP=1180817870/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=www.clarence-webpage.com/AfricanArts/bourne001.html&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&amp;amp;d=aVkW8OrnOuHz&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAyrZXNyoA/SIG=15u9dc2m2/EXP=1180817870/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=www.clarence-webpage.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAy7ZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwbHJxc3FxBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTYEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12c6lo4jv/EXP=1180817870/**http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15648/15648-h/15648-h.htm">The Project Gutenberg eBook of American Merchant Ships and Sailors, by ...</a><br />... Ship-Building—How the Shipyards Multiplied—Lawless Times on the High Seas—Ship-Building in the Forests and on the Farm—Some Early Types—The Course of Maritime ...www.gutenberg.org/files/15648/15648-h/15648-h.htm - 526k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAzLZXNyoA/SIG=1a9mok7t9/EXP=1180817870/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=www.gutenberg.org/files/15648/15648-h/15648-h.htm&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=C_ShournOvqY&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAzbZXNyoA/SIG=15nvoplmr/EXP=1180817870/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=www.gutenberg.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAzrZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwZjMyamNwBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTcEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=11qn5h6n1/EXP=1180817870/**http://www.erbzine.com/mag15/1547.html">ERBzine 1547: Opar by Rick Johnson</a><br />Both La and Egypt mention sailing ships! ... easily navigable waterway, we find the ancient civilization ... The inhabitants are Black Africans, not White. ...www.erbzine.com/mag15/1547.html - 24k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYAz7ZXNyoA/SIG=19npe92rc/EXP=1180817870/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=www.erbzine.com/mag15/1547.html&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=FgJKw-rnO11W&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYA0LZXNyoA/SIG=15lgh763p/EXP=1180817870/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=www.erbzine.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYA0bZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwMDdlNWhjBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTgEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=135ilsrsf/EXP=1180817870/**http://www.the7thfire.com/black_civilization/glorious_achievements_of_black_c.htm">Glorious Achievements of Black Civilizations</a><br />... on ancient discoveries made by Africans, Chinese and Black Kushite Arabs. ... Sailing across Atlantic by Nubians, West Africans and Egyptians as well as ...the7thfire.com/black_civilization/glorious_achievements_of_black_c.htm - 173k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYA0rZXNyoA/SIG=1b29bcr0d/EXP=1180817870/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=www.the7thfire.com/black_civilization/glorious_achievements_of_black_c.htm&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=cfyY_ernOuHZ&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYA07ZXNyoA/SIG=15ohbtvbt/EXP=1180817870/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=www.the7thfire.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYA1LZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwam0yYjNsBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTkEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12g1nvipq/EXP=1180817870/**http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/gilbert/10.html">EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY BEGINNINGS OF THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE</a><br />... fast, and within two hundred years they were building the best ships in the world. ... to condone the enslavement of black Africans in order to spare the Indians. ...vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/gilbert/10.html - 29k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYA1bZXNyoA/SIG=1adlrkkor/EXP=1180817870/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/gilbert/10.html&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=R1Hs6ernOvTE&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYA1rZXNyoA/SIG=15hdff78f/EXP=1180817870/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=vlib.iue.it">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYA17ZXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwN3RqYmJrBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjAEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=123ucl0o4/EXP=1180817870/**http://www.ctfreedomtrail.com/site/concept.html">Connecticut Freedom Trail</a><br />... for its maritime village and working craftspeople, is the ship Charles W. Morgan, ... was where Africans were brought from the Spanish slave ship Amistad by the ...www.ctfreedomtrail.com/site/concept.html - 96k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYA2LZXNyoA/SIG=1a01irvq9/EXP=1180817870/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=www.ctfreedomtrail.com/site/concept.html&w=ship+building+buildings+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&d=DsfEG-rnO2L5&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu6NOiGBGYKYA2bZXNyoA/SIG=15s4lnsvj/EXP=1180817870/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ship+building+and+maritime+sailing+ancient+black+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=www.ctfreedomtrail.com">More from this site</a>Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7185914702911992261.post-50058456600848756742007-06-01T16:17:00.000-04:002007-06-09T20:27:23.960-04:00History Ancient Africa urlsafrica-olmec: <a href="http://www.raceandhistory.com/historicalviews/ancientamerica.htm">http://www.raceandhistory.com/historicalviews/ancientamerica.htm</a><br /><br />Africans in Pacific: <a href="http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/pacific.html">http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/pacific.html</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAH2VXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2bWJzNWI1BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMQRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=11tcpcumd/EXP=1180816492/**http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/melanesia.html">BLACKS IN THE PACIFIC</a> ... people stretched across Africa, Eurasia, Australia, Oceanica and ancient America. ... the striking resemblance between Melanesians and West Africans. ... <a href="http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/melanesia.html">www.cwo.com/~lucumi/melanesia.html</a> - 4k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAIGVXNyoA/SIG=17bh3ueo5/EXP=1180816492/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.cwo.com/%7Elucumi/melanesia.html&w=ancient+africans+pacific&d=YUW0h-rnOq_D&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAIWVXNyoA/SIG=14f4rnkdo/EXP=1180816492/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.cwo.com">More from this site</a><br /><br /><a href="http://xenohistorian.faithweb.com/african/af01.html">http://xenohistorian.faithweb.com/african/af01.html</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.homestead.com/wysinger/ancientafrica.html">http://www.homestead.com/wysinger/ancientafrica.html</a><br /><br /><a href="http://archaeology.com/ancient_african_civilizations.htm">http://archaeology.com/ancient_african_civilizations.htm</a><br /><br /><a href="http://new.photos.com/exhibitphotos">http://new.photos.com/exhibitphotos</a><br /><br /><br />Search Results<br />1 - 10 of about 208,000 for <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAGmVXNyoA/SIG=12m73h62b/EXP=1180816492/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=ancient">ancient</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAG2VXNyoA/SIG=12n0v02qf/EXP=1180816492/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=africans">africans</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAHGVXNyoA/SIG=12h6q116j/EXP=1180816492/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=in">in</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAHWVXNyoA/SIG=12i08k42v/EXP=1180816492/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=the">the</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAHmVXNyoA/SIG=12munpdru/EXP=1180816492/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=pacific">pacific</a> - 0.29 sec. (<a href="http://help.yahoo.com/help/us/ysearch/basics/basics-03.html">About this page</a>)<br />WEB RESULTS<br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAH2VXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2bWJzNWI1BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMQRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=11tcpcumd/EXP=1180816492/**http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/melanesia.html">BLACKS IN THE PACIFIC</a><br />... people stretched across Africa, Eurasia, Australia, Oceanica and ancient America. ... the striking resemblance between Melanesians and West Africans. ...www.cwo.com/~lucumi/melanesia.html - 4k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAIGVXNyoA/SIG=17bh3ueo5/EXP=1180816492/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.cwo.com/%7Elucumi/melanesia.html&w=ancient+africans+pacific&d=YUW0h-rnOq_D&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAIWVXNyoA/SIG=14f4rnkdo/EXP=1180816492/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.cwo.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAImVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2cGpzZHNxBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMgRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12kmbcvaa/EXP=1180816492/**http://www.raceandhistory.com/historicalviews/ancientamerica.htm">RaceandHistory.com - BLACK CIVILIZATIONS OF ANCIENT AMERICA</a><br />In fact, iron was being used by the ancient West Africans as early as 2600 years ... on the Pacific side of the Americas and was began by Africans with Affinities ...www.raceandhistory.com/historicalviews/ancientamerica.htm - 62k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAI2VXNyoA/SIG=17urj5uuo/EXP=1180816492/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.raceandhistory.com/historicalviews/ancientamerica.htm&w=ancient+africans+pacific&d=XJQzYernOuvc&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAJGVXNyoA/SIG=14q40ivll/EXP=1180816492/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.raceandhistory.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAJWVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2ZHEzZ2FsBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMwRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=11fpf7ua5/EXP=1180816492/**http://ancientamerican.com/">Ancient American</a><br />Reports ancient artifacts found and opens a forum for discussion between the professional and the avocational archaeologist.ancientamerican.com - 16k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAJmVXNyoA/SIG=16pjql5qv/EXP=1180816492/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&u=ancientamerican.com/&w=ancient+africans+pacific&d=QWy_yernO4JB&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAJ2VXNyoA/SIG=14nos4tvn/EXP=1180816492/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=ancientamerican.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAKGVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2Z2VtZDE4BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNARjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12j2qg9au/EXP=1180816492/**http://members.tripod.com/pointingbird/lostfeatherintl/id59.htm">Black Islanders</a><br />Negroids in The South Pacific. Filipinos, Malaysians, Polynesian, Fiji, all from Africans? ... the Asian mainland and the Pacific Islands in ancient times. ...members.tripod.com/pointingbird/lostfeatherintl/id59.htm - 37k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAKWVXNyoA/SIG=17tje8pg3/EXP=1180816492/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&u=members.tripod.com/pointingbird/lostfeatherintl/id59.htm&w=ancient+africans+pacific&d=eFo6MOrnO2Kp&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAKmVXNyoA/SIG=14msibdnr/EXP=1180816492/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=members.tripod.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAK2VXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2dGY3c2NpBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNQRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=1213t54gb/EXP=1180816492/**http://www.ipoaa.com/africans_in_americas.htm">africans in the americas</a><br />... children are both significant in the religion of ancient Africans as well as the ... those who had a trading relationship with people in the Pacific Ocean. ...www.ipoaa.com/africans_in_americas.htm - 13k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoALGVXNyoA/SIG=17b28impa/EXP=1180816492/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.ipoaa.com/africans_in_americas.htm&w=ancient+africans+pacific&d=EWfC7OrnOvMZ&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoALWVXNyoA/SIG=14hhh0ijp/EXP=1180816492/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.ipoaa.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoALmVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2MzVpcDEyBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNgRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=11v6onq56/EXP=1180816492/**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_(people)">Black people - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</a><br />Africans in the Americas ... on influence of black Africa in ancient Egypt. ... people who live in various parts of Asia, Australia and the South pacific. ...en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_(people) - 98k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAL2VXNyoA/SIG=17hj773dt/EXP=1180816492/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&u=en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_%28people%29&w=ancient+africans+pacific&d=bqaJ5ernO3DC&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAMGVXNyoA/SIG=14k2iqfh1/EXP=1180816492/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=en.wikipedia.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAMWVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2c2s2aXNyBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNwRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12743l7m6/EXP=1180816492/**http://www.paganlore.com:8080/wiccan_passage.aspx">Rites Of Passage (Paganlore.com)</a><br />... Africans, Amerindians, Eskimos, Pacific Islanders, Witches, ancient Egyptians, ... in ancient Italy originally went to be initiated into the Orphic Mysteries. ...www.paganlore.com:8080/wiccan_passage.aspx - 24k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAMmVXNyoA/SIG=17hbjqg0g/EXP=1180816492/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.paganlore.com:8080/wiccan_passage.aspx&w=ancient+africans+pacific&d=Yfrlm-rnOxzF&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAM2VXNyoA/SIG=14l228qo8/EXP=1180816492/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.paganlore.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoANGVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2Z3VkNDd2BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDOARjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12sb5lb2j/EXP=1180816492/**http://www.pacificrim.usfca.edu/research/pacrimreport/pacrimreport2.html">USF Center for the Pacific Rim :: Pacific Rim Report No.2</a><br />... countries, and no Africans or Asians, for example, participated in the process. ... 9. Benjamin Schwartz, The World of Thought in Ancient China (Cambridge, Mass. ...www.pacificrim.usfca.edu/research/pacrimreport/pacrimreport2.html - 94k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoANWVXNyoA/SIG=186i0k73h/EXP=1180816492/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.pacificrim.usfca.edu/research/pacrimreport/pacrimreport2.html&w=ancient+africans+pacific&d=YX8w5urnOpoN&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoANmVXNyoA/SIG=14s3lo0mk/EXP=1180816492/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.pacificrim.usfca.edu">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAN2VXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTB2cnE3dGQ4BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDOQRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZAMEbANXUzE-/SIG=12bcu8gs8/EXP=1180816492/**http://www.cabrillo.edu/~crsmith/ancientimmigrants.html">WHO WAS FIRST -- Ancient Immigrants Into The Americas</a><br />... which resembles instead modern Africans and Australians. ... The most direct route of these early pioneers would have been across the north Pacific. ...www.cabrillo.edu/~crsmith/ancientimmigrants.html - 6k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAOGVXNyoA/SIG=17rcmge55/EXP=1180816492/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&u=www.cabrillo.edu/%257Ecrsmith/ancientimmigrants.html&w=ancient+africans+pacific&d=extdz-rnOq91&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAOWVXNyoA/SIG=14kcikeb8/EXP=1180816492/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=www.cabrillo.edu">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAOmVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwN2h1cm5sBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTAEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=11nlqr57p/EXP=1180816492/**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa">Africa - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</a><br />... in the Pharaonic-ruled civilisation of Ancient Egypt, which continued, with ... that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private ...<br />Quick Links: <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAO2VXNyoA/SIG=1232cb2fq/EXP=1180816492/**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa#Etymology">Etymology</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAPGVXNyoA/SIG=123d6o9u9/EXP=1180816492/**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa#Geography">Geography</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAPWVXNyoA/SIG=12nqb8fu9/EXP=1180816492/**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa#Climate.2C_fauna.2C_and_flora">Climate, fauna, and flora</a> en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa - 234k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAPmVXNyoA/SIG=171n69vbj/EXP=1180816492/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&u=en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa&w=ancient+africans+pacific&d=Sp1ijernO3UF&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu.fsgmBGqBoAP2VXNyoA/SIG=14k2iqfh1/EXP=1180816492/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=ancient+africans+in+the+pacific&fr=ieas-tb&vst=0&vs=en.wikipedia.org">More from this site</a><br /><br /><br /><br />Search Results<br />11 - 20 of about 207,000 for <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu59chGBGUX4Ai4BXNyoA/SIG=12me15r7r/EXP=1180816860/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=ancient">ancient</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu59chGBGUX4AjIBXNyoA/SIG=12nqvki0b/EXP=1180816860/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=africans">africans</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu59chGBGUX4AjYBXNyoA/SIG=12htlfr9p/EXP=1180816860/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=in">in</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu59chGBGUX4AjoBXNyoA/SIG=12i4osbbc/EXP=1180816860/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=the">the</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu59chGBGUX4Aj4BXNyoA/SIG=12ma7kr44/EXP=1180816860/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=pacific">pacific</a> - 0.21 sec. 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Asians and Aborigines Africans through their ancient heritage and genetics. ... 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(<a href="http://help.yahoo.com/help/us/ysearch/basics/basics-03.html">About this page</a>)<br />WEB RESULTS<br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA0bdXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE2dHZkcGZqBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMQRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZANGNjY2XzgwBGwDV1Mx/SIG=11riihan4/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australoid">Australoid - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</a><br />Wells found DNA markers that linked African San populations with a man living in ... A small number of peoples living in Tierra del Fuego are speculated to be a ...<br />Quick Links: <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA0rdXNyoA/SIG=12jl25g31/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australoid%23History_of_the_theory">History of the theory</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA07dXNyoA/SIG=12d6qnpim/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australoid%23Modern_findings">Modern findings</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA1LdXNyoA/SIG=12kilq0fj/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australoid%23The_first_Americans.3F">The first Americans?</a> en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australoid - 31k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA1bdXNyoA/SIG=18pa9nla0/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australoid%26w=australoid%2bdna%2bnatives%2bnative%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26d=XC7pQOrnO6sq%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA1rdXNyoA/SIG=15a9mt5nu/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=en.wikipedia.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA17dXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE2am42a2M5BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMgRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZANGNjY2XzgwBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12ldcf393/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_of_migration_to_the_New_World">Models of migration to the New World - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</a><br />... specific coastal tribes in Tierra del Fuego, Ecuador, Mexico and California.[3] ... Glenn Smith, "Mitochondrial DNA Studies of Native Americans: Conceptions and ...<br />Quick Links: <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA2LdXNyoA/SIG=13018roqm/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_of_migration_to_the_New_World%23Overview">Overview</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA2bdXNyoA/SIG=13ghmctqc/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_of_migration_to_the_New_World%23Understanding_the_Debate">Understanding the Debate</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA2rdXNyoA/SIG=13ar2mvuc/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_of_migration_to_the_New_World%23Land_Bridge_theory">Land Bridge theory</a> en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_of_migration_to_the_New_World - 58k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA27dXNyoA/SIG=19jf6b6qg/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_of_migration_to_the_New_World%26w=australoid%2bdna%2bnatives%2bnative%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26d=d-oX5urnO6vG%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA3LdXNyoA/SIG=15a9mt5nu/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=en.wikipedia.org">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA3bdXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE2amJ2aGU2BHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMwRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZANGNjY2XzgwBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12guugv06/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030504/spectrum/book7.htm">The Sunday Tribune - Spectrum - Literature</a><br />... had noted how inhabitants from Tierra del Fuego were stunted in growth and had ... the theory of five distinct human subspecies — Australoid, Capoid, Caucasoid, ...www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030504/spectrum/book7.htm - 18k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA3rdXNyoA/SIG=19e3hdl7q/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030504/spectrum/book7.htm%26w=australoid%2bdna%2bnatives%2bnative%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26d=N3JV1OrnOvWG%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA37dXNyoA/SIG=15euf9sok/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.tribuneindia.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA4LdXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE2YzNqbzFyBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNARjb2xvA2UEdnRpZANGNjY2XzgwBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12qupmt0s/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//www.hawaii.edu/geog_mr/ssci150online/09-colonization/fiedel.pdf">The Peopling of the New World: Present Evidence, New Theories, and ...</a> (PDF)<br />... evidence, in America and northern Asia, for the origins of Native ... points reached Tierra del Fuego by about 13,000 B.P. If they encountered a pre ...www.hawaii.edu/geog_mr/ssci150online/09-colonization/fiedel.pdf - 342k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA4bdXNyoA/SIG=19os0pg1m/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.hawaii.edu/geog_mr/ssci150online/09-colonization/fiedel.pdf%26w=australoid%2bdna%2bnatives%2bnative%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26d=OjKBwOrnOwpP%26icp=1%26.intl=us">View as html</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA4rdXNyoA/SIG=158fto79a/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.hawaii.edu">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA47dXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE2cmVkNTBlBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNQRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZANGNjY2XzgwBGwDV1Mx/SIG=11s24paj5/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//pubpages.unh.edu/~jel/sarich.html">Note from Sarich on "Eve" hypothesis</a><br />... were, almost certainly, the Ona (Selk'nam) of Tierra del Fuego (Gusinde, 1939) ... among organisms occurs in the form of their mitochondrial DNA sequences. ...pubpages.unh.edu/~jel/sarich.html - 75k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA5LdXNyoA/SIG=18u6n34f0/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=pubpages.unh.edu/%257Ejel/sarich.html%26w=australoid%2bdna%2bnatives%2bnative%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26d=XO3eS-rnOw8V%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA5bdXNyoA/SIG=15a62pr9j/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=pubpages.unh.edu">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA5rdXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE2YnZjZ25mBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNgRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZANGNjY2XzgwBGwDV1Mx/SIG=13kcr0lse/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//www.mc.maricopa.edu/~reffland/anthropology/anthro2003/origins/hominid_journey/sarich.html">untitled.html</a><br />... were, almost certainly, the Ona (Selk'nam) of Tierra del Fuego (Gusinde, 1939) ... among organisms occurs in the form of their mitochondrial DNA sequences. ...mc.maricopa.edu/~reffland/anthropology/.../hominid_journey/sarich.html - 72k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA57dXNyoA/SIG=1amoid2pc/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.mc.maricopa.edu/%257Ereffland/anthropology/anthro2003/origins/hominid_journey/sarich.html%26w=australoid%2bdna%2bnatives%2bnative%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26d=cyrtcernOzdi%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA6LdXNyoA/SIG=15daseuu5/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.mc.maricopa.edu">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA6bdXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE2aHJsbWIxBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDNwRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZANGNjY2XzgwBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12hhpbacl/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//www.teamatlantis.com/yucatan_test/research_iberia.html">Team Atlantis - Research Papers</a><br />... be seen in isolated peripheral regions, like Tierra del Fuego, which can be ... Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis of Native American populations is also curious. ...www.teamatlantis.com/yucatan_test/research_iberia.html - 64k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA6rdXNyoA/SIG=19fdn9f2m/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.teamatlantis.com/yucatan_test/research_iberia.html%26w=australoid%2bdna%2bnatives%2bnative%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26d=Urr0kernOxUV%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA67dXNyoA/SIG=15eudkkof/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.teamatlantis.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA7LdXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE2dWt2azlqBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDOARjb2xvA2UEdnRpZANGNjY2XzgwBGwDV1Mx/SIG=124tn22bb/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//dienekes.blogspot.com/search/label/Dental">Dienekes' Anthropology Blog</a><br />... of ancient human populations usually rely on amplification of DNA preserved in dental samples. ... of admixture in Hispanics and Native Americans ...dienekes.blogspot.com/search/label/Dental - 214k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA7bdXNyoA/SIG=192dr8nqd/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=dienekes.blogspot.com/search/label/Dental%26w=australoid%2bdna%2bnatives%2bnative%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26d=aMVUFOrnOuoe%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA7rdXNyoA/SIG=15fr64mtt/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=dienekes.blogspot.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA77dXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE2ZWlyOThoBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDOQRjb2xvA2UEdnRpZANGNjY2XzgwBGwDV1Mx/SIG=1305bab20/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//allrss.com/wikipedia.php%3ftitle=Models_of_migration_to_the_New_World">Wikipedia search result</a><br />... specific coastal tribes in Tierra del Fuego, Ecuador, Mexico and California.[3] ... 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Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis of Native American populations is also curious. ...www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-chat/1044449/posts - 72k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA87dXNyoA/SIG=1980nge8b/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//216.109.125.130/search/cache%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26u=www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-chat/1044449/posts%26w=australoid%2bdna%2bnatives%2bnative%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26d=QdYJx-rnOuwA%26icp=1%26.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9DyQ2tG9IgA9LdXNyoA/SIG=15e0qqgml/EXP=1181521266/**http%3a//search.yahoo.com/search%3fei=UTF-8%26p=australoid%2bdna%2bin%2bnatives%2bof%2btierra%2bdel%2bfuego%26fr=slv8-msgr%26vst=0%26vs=www.freerepublic.com">More from this site</a><br /><br /><br />>>>><br /><br /><br />Results<br />1 - 10 of about 854,000 for <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu8j8hGBG7DoAhWFXNyoA/SIG=12mil31oo/EXP=1180817020/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=history">history</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu8j8hGBG7DoAhmFXNyoA/SIG=12h3vlrmc/EXP=1180817020/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=of">of</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu8j8hGBG7DoAh2FXNyoA/SIG=12mkn0oba/EXP=1180817020/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=ancient">ancient</a> <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu8j8hGBG7DoAiGFXNyoA/SIG=12ndat8qp/EXP=1180817020/**http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/search?p=africans">africans</a> - 0.30 sec. 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African names of people and places in Ancient Egyptian history into European ... The book is about the Africans who wrote the Bible as well as Ancient Egypt. ...www.stewartsynopsis.com/africans_wrote_the_bible.htm - 30k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wAniVXNyoA/SIG=17ln4768j/EXP=1180817231/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=history+of+ancient+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=www.stewartsynopsis.com/africans_wrote_the_bible.htm&w=history+ancient+africans&d=dogrA-rnOult&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wAnyVXNyoA/SIG=14n790ujt/EXP=1180817231/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=history+of+ancient+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=www.stewartsynopsis.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wAoCVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwYnE2bjNsBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTUEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12dmj9bu0/EXP=1180817231/**http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/african_history/79821">White Africans</a><br />What does it mean to be a white African today? ... african history. american history. ancient history. anthropology. archaeology. asian history ...www.suite101.com/article.cfm/african_history/79821 - 27k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wAoSVXNyoA/SIG=17jjqaaqh/EXP=1180817231/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=history+of+ancient+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=www.suite101.com/article.cfm/african_history/79821&w=history+ancient+africans&d=HQDQE-rnO0DW&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wAoiVXNyoA/SIG=14gcs5sb7/EXP=1180817231/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=history+of+ancient+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=www.suite101.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wAoyVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwbHJxc3FxBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTYEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12de4l040/EXP=1180817231/**http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/african_history/56552">Part II Africa for Africans: Ethiopian Independent Churches</a><br />This article continues Part I, a discussion of African Independent Churches. ... ancient corinth. children's books lead to interest in african history ...www.suite101.com/article.cfm/african_history/56552 - 32k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wApCVXNyoA/SIG=17jk8f8e2/EXP=1180817231/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=history+of+ancient+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=www.suite101.com/article.cfm/african_history/56552&w=history+ancient+africans&d=JKCDsurnO2d3&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wApSVXNyoA/SIG=14gcs5sb7/EXP=1180817231/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=history+of+ancient+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=www.suite101.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wApiVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwZjMyamNwBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTcEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=11nrurc71/EXP=1180817231/**http://www.worldhistorycompass.com/">World History Compass</a><br />Provides links to a wide variety of history sites. Covers such topics as ancient times, mathematics, military, U.S., and technology.www.worldhistorycompass.com - 41k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wApyVXNyoA/SIG=16tifpqt2/EXP=1180817231/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=history+of+ancient+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=www.worldhistorycompass.com/&w=history+ancient+africans&d=S-7S4-rnO4NF&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wAqCVXNyoA/SIG=14r4e0j46/EXP=1180817231/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=history+of+ancient+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=www.worldhistorycompass.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wAqSVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwMDdlNWhjBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTgEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=14lbp2una/EXP=1180817231/**http://ca.dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Egypt/Arts_and_Humanities/Humanities/History/By_Time_Period/Ancient_History/?sort=lf">Yahoo! Canada Directory > Egypt > Ancient History</a><br />... about life, pyramids, Egyptian culture, and the history of Ancient Egypt. ... Africans of the Nile Valley Civilization) spiritual tradition and religion. ...ca.dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Egypt/Arts_and_Humanities/... - 21k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wAqiVXNyoA/SIG=1a18t69jd/EXP=1180817231/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=history+of+ancient+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=ca.dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Egypt/Arts_and_Humanities/Humanities/History/By_Time_Period/Ancient_History/%3Fsort%3Dlf&w=history+ancient+africans&d=Oo0ua-rnO121&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wAqyVXNyoA/SIG=14g0n819c/EXP=1180817231/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=history+of+ancient+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=ca.dir.yahoo.com">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wArCVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwam0yYjNsBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMTkEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=12rp604mg/EXP=1180817231/**http://web.cocc.edu/cagatucci/classes/hum211/timelines/htimelinetoc.htm">African Timelines - Table of Contents</a><br />the study of African history today a double necessity for both Africans and non-Africans. ... African History Sourcebook offers numerous ancient, medieval, ...web.cocc.edu/cagatucci/classes/hum211/timelines/htimelinetoc.htm - 13k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wArSVXNyoA/SIG=181qahrp7/EXP=1180817231/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=history+of+ancient+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=web.cocc.edu/cagatucci/classes/hum211/timelines/htimelinetoc.htm&w=history+ancient+africans&d=APqNf-rnO4MT&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wAriVXNyoA/SIG=14cr6sbio/EXP=1180817231/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=history+of+ancient+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=web.cocc.edu">More from this site</a><br /><a class="yschttl" href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wAryVXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTEwN3RqYmJrBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMjAEY29sbwNlBHZ0aWQDBGwDV1Mx/SIG=128jcd75d/EXP=1180817231/**http://www.homestead.com/wysinger/ancientafrica.html">Ancient Africa's Black Kingdoms</a><br />History of the Kingdom of Kush, and Ancient Nubia. Ancient Nubian Timeline. ... as well as many articles on the American history of Africans displaced there. ...www.homestead.com/wysinger/ancientafrica.html - 99k - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wAsCVXNyoA/SIG=17eltjv18/EXP=1180817231/**http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=history+of+ancient+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&u=www.homestead.com/wysinger/ancientafrica.html&w=history+ancient+africans&d=I3EHeurnO35o&icp=1&.intl=us">Cached</a> - <a href="http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0geu9bPhWBGE5wAsSVXNyoA/SIG=14hkkhqns/EXP=1180817231/**http://search.yahoo.com/search?ei=UTF-8&p=history+of+ancient+africans&fr=slv8-msgr&vst=0&vs=www.homestead.com">More from this site</a>Aggrieved Historianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16070130141391087835noreply@blogger.com0